浮萍男孩 | EPUBVIEWER

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作／譯者簡介

作者簡介

利奧納德・薩克斯

Leonard Sax, M.D., Ph.D.

是醫生也是心理學家，為美國單性公立教育協會（National Association for Single-Sex Public Education, NASSPE）的創辦人和執行長。學術性相關研究發表在許多知名期刊上，包括《美國心理學家》（American Psychologist）、《行為神經科學》（Behavioral Neuroscience）、《美國醫學期刊》（Journal of American Medical Association）、《美國營養學院期刊》（Journal of the American College of Nutrition）以及《性研究期刊》（Journal of Sex Research）等等，並著有《養男育女調不同》和《棉花糖女孩》（遠流出版）等書。他是知名的演說家，一年在全球有五十場的演講，曾多次接受美國有線電視新聞網（CNN）、美國公共電視（PBS）、福斯新聞（Fox News）、美國公共廣播電臺（NPR）、美國之聲（Voice of America）、《今日秀》（The Today Shows）及許多其他節目的採訪，討論性別差異在孩子學習上的重要性。

作者官網 https://www.leonardsax.com/

譯者簡介

洪蘭

加州大學河濱校區實驗心理學博士，在加州大學爾灣醫學院神經科和耶魯大學哈斯金實驗室接受博士後訓練，曾任教於加州大學河濱分校、中正大學、陽明大學、中央大學，並為中央大學認知神經科學研究所的創所所長。

洪教授已翻譯了五十七本生物科技及心理學方面的好書，包括《棉花糖女孩》、《浮萍男孩》、《養男育女調不同》、《心智拼圖》、《天生愛學樣》、《教養的迷思》、《快思慢想》、《改變是大腦的天性》、《自癒是大腦的本能》等。

洪博士曾獲頒吳大猷科學普及著作獎翻譯類金籤獎、2005年東元科技文教基金會特別貢獻獎、2011年遠見雜誌華人領袖終身成就獎。

有感於教育是國家的根本，而閱讀是教育的根本，前後去過臺灣大大小小超過三千所的中小學作推廣閱讀的演講，深受各界推崇。

著有《講理就好》等二十五本書。

導讀男孩的成長需要適當的教育與引導洪蘭

男孩的成長需要適當的教育與引導

洪蘭

　　以前我做學生時，班上沒有一個同學是過動或注意力缺失，現在幾乎每一班都至少有一個，有的班還高到四、五個。頑皮的孩子自古至今都有，男生沒有調過皮、挨過打，好像就不可能長大，但是皮到要帶去給醫生看、要吃藥，好像是沒有。所以這個注意力缺失過動症（Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, ADHD）就變成了二十一世紀非常引人矚目的疾病。本書作者是個家醫科醫生，又在賓州大學唸到心理學的博士學位，手邊有臨床門診的資料，又有作研究的訓練，加上「好奇」是人的本性，他就開始去研究為什麼本世紀有麼多過動／注意力缺失的孩子，而且為什麼男生居多。

　　疾病是不分性別一律肆虐的，如果分性別，那麼可能有基因上的原因，使某個性別容易受疾病的侵害；也可能有社會的因素，對某個性別特別不利，所以值得研究。他發現真正應該吃藥的過動兒不多，許多是誤診，吃了不該吃的藥，因為父母的期待和老師、醫生的方便（沒有父母能接受我的孩子功課不好是他比較笨的關係，如果是疾病，那麼父母顏面沒有失，畢竟人要生病是沒有辦法的事；服了藥，孩子安靜下來，可以坐在課堂上聽講了，對老師是個很大的精神壓力解脫；很多醫生是隻要病人不抱怨，老師、父母都要求用藥時，開了藥皆大歡喜，所以治標的各種藥物就越開越多了）。但是基本上，這是鋸箭療傷的方式，並不能解決問題，本書的作者在門診繁忙之餘，費心找出該現象的社會原因，解除孩子的痛苦，是很令人敬佩的。

　　過動／注意力缺失是男孩、女孩都有的毛病，為何本書只偏重男生的現象和發生原因呢？這是因為男生情況比較嚴重，先從嚴重的救起。在大腦的發展上男生成熟得比女生慢。美國國家衛生研究院（NIH）曾經做過一個大型的大腦發展造影研究，掃描了一千七百多個從幼兒園到青春期孩子的大腦，結果發現男生與女生在大腦不同區域成熟的順序和時間不同。一般來說，女生早熟，甚至可以早到兩年的差距，所以有些六年級的女生看起來像高中生，有些國二的男生看起來像五年級小學生。最近比較人類學的基因研究發現，男生與公黑猩猩有百分之九九・四的基因相同，比與人類女性的共同基因還多一些。所以男生在看、聽、嗅覺方面與公黑猩猩的相似性大於人類的女性。這一點對瞭解性別差異很重要，男女在處理事情上的不同是來自大腦結構與神經迴路活化上所造成的功能上的不同。

　　在臺灣談性別差異是件危險的事，我曾因為談到男女在同一件事的處理上大腦有不同之處，而被猛烈攻擊，甚至黑函說我政治不正確。但是在實驗上的確有看到差異，所以必須要講。其實每個人有每個人擅長的地方，真正的男女平等應該是每個人去做每個人擅長的事，不論它是刻板的男生的事或刻板的女生的事。法律要保障的是機會的平等和薪水的平等。作者也看到了男女大腦上的不同，所以他認為男生需要適合男生天性的課程表，從他們的長處切入，去開啟教導他們的心智。他說男生需要常常去戶外活動，在大自然中觀察，從實際動手操作中學習（其實女性也是需要）。如果孩子花很多時間在電腦螢幕前面而不在戶外，會有所謂的「文化自閉症」（Cultural Autism），最後形成被孤立、牽制、阻遏的那種「隧道感官」感覺（Tunneled Senses），他們抓不到概念或問題的重心。因此，從本書中，你可以強烈感覺到作者贊成男女分校或分班，男生需要競爭才會有動機。作者舉了很多例子來支持他的看法。我來自女校，回想自己的成長過程，我承認他講的有道理。

　　由於全球競爭激烈，每個父母都希望孩子及早學習，忘記了學習有「成熟」這個條件。現在幼兒園做的是小學一年級的工作，美國從幼兒園開始教認字、寫字（臺灣也是），假如男生成熟得慢，還不能讀和寫，這時，他會討厭上學，因為上學是挫折，是去做一件他能力還做不到的事。其實北歐很多學校是七歲才啟蒙上學，他們的國力發展也沒有比我們五歲就學寫字的差。太早要求孩子去做他還沒有準備好、還未成熟到可以做的事，對孩子的身心都不好。

　　讀者可以想像馬路上有個裂縫，大人一腳就跨過去了，孩子則必須蹲下來爬過去，爬時還得戰戰兢兢，生怕掉下去。但是等孩子長大一點，腳步變寬時，他也一步就跨過去了。小時候看希臘神話金羊毛（Golden Fleece）的電影，巨人一腳就跨過了博斯普魯斯海峽；或是《格列佛遊記》裡的格列佛一把就把船抓起來，多麼輕而易舉。看到臺灣的父母，孩子才三歲兩個月就送去學國文數學，真讓我心痛。這本書有很多篇幅是為了這樣的父母寫的，作者從大腦的觀點來勸告父母不要揠苗助長，每個人大腦的成熟時間不一樣，大腦同一區塊男女成熟的時間也不一樣，不必心急，晚一年上學沒有所謂的面子問題，幼兒園本來就是個學習與別人相處的遊戲地方，沒有「被當掉」的面子問題。

　　至於為什麼白人小孩被診斷為ADHD的比例高，這是社會偏見的關係。一個白人小孩拿到Ｃ，而老師認為他應該拿Ａ，老師就會懷疑他是不是注意力有缺失，上課沒有好好聽，回家沒有好好做功課；但是假如一個黑人或墨西哥孩子拿到Ｃ，老師可能認為他是能力所限，無法拿到更好的成績，就不會建議父母帶孩子去找醫生開藥。作者坦承美國有很多人，包括黑人老師在內，仍是對白人孩子有較高的期待，他們會認為這個白人小孩沒有發揮出他的潛能，應該尋求改進方法。想不到這反而使不需要服藥的白人孩子服了藥，變成白人ADHD的機率比黑人高出了許多。這也許是種族歧視者前所未料的吧！

　　那麼，如果孩子不是過動／注意力缺失，為什麼吃了藥就安靜下來，學習就進步了呢？麻省理工學院蓋伯瑞利教授的實驗回答了這個問題。蓋伯瑞利真是神通廣大，能得到父母的同意，給正常的孩子吃注意力缺失過動症的藥；他也得到病童父母同意，暫時給注意力缺失過動症的孩子停藥。他在這段期間測試兒童，看他們在有藥、無藥的情況下學習的情形。結果發現藥物會增進正常兒童的學習，增進的強度與有注意力缺失過動症的兒童的程度一模一樣。這些藥物都是促使大腦中血清張素的濃度增加，而血清張素跟記憶、注意力、動機都有直接的關係，難怪過動／注意力缺失的誤診率這麼高。很多人都認為吃了藥有效，就一定是這個病，其實不見得。路上很多人打傘時，陰溝的水會漲高，但是那是因為下雨的關係，雨水才是真正的原因，打傘只是個表象。

　　現在許多家長很短視，只要孩子功課好，什麼都可以犧牲。既然吃了藥記憶力會好，為何不給他吃？他們會要求醫生開藥。最近動物的研究發現這些藥物會影響大腦，尤其是伏隔核，會使動物失去動機：肚子餓，食物放在面前懶得吃，連敵人來都懶得逃命。在人類身上也看到同樣情形，最近腦造影研究發現，七到十四歲的男生如果玩太多電玩，會影響伏隔核和背側前額葉皮質（DLPFC）的平衡，伏隔核是把動機和驅力送到DLPFC去、DLPFC再給這個驅力回饋報酬的目標和情境，這兩個區域密切合作，這個人就有動機，朝真實世界的目標前進。但是如果電玩遊戲將血液引入伏隔核，使DLPFC的血流量減少，這時電玩遊戲本身就給了孩子達到目的的回饋報酬，而這回饋報酬並沒有連接到真實的世界，所以他們對真實世界的成就不再感興趣。電玩刺激大腦的伏隔核區，就跟吸食古柯鹼所影響的地方一樣，所以電玩會上癮。

　　其實男生和女生真的有不同，從孩子的行為上就可以看出。我和我妹妹都曾到動物收養中心去領養過流浪貓，我妹妹的兩個女兒會替貓洗澡，用洗衣籃替牠佈置一個溫暖的窩；我的兒子就把貓塞到他的Ｔ恤裡假裝他在懷孕，結果貓逃出來時，在他胸前狠狠留下五道血爪印。男生闖了禍不敢說，等我替他洗澡時才發現，他怕我罵，還一直說不痛、不痛。

　　男孩並不會因長大就自動變成男人，他們需要被教導、被引導，需要藉由各種挑戰證明給別人看，他的身體、心智都已成熟，可以脫離父母保護，獨當一面，他才算成年。年齡跟成熟之間不是等號關係，古人十六歲弱冠，變成大人，現在十六歲男生還要媽媽叫起床才不會遲到，不但不能謀生養家，每天還要跟家裡拿零用錢。

　　男孩需要磨練才能成為男人，我很贊成作者說的讓孩子去勞動服務，從流汗中學到做為一個男人是什麼意思，當你自己可以種出米來吃、蓋出房子來住時，你就知道你可以獨當一面了。所以電視廣告說喝了某個牌子的啤酒才是真正的男人，勞動服務過的孩子知道不對，真正的男人跟喝什麼牌子的啤酒無關，跟你有無能力去服務別人有關係。

　　本書最好的地方是作者在指出所有造成孩子沒有動機的因素後，最後給父母指出一條生路，建議父母可以怎麼做去改變孩子，讓孩子重拾動機。他在書中所提的方法都很簡單，只要有心，便可以做到的：如盡量帶孩子去跟大自然接觸，在他背青蛙的解剖圖之前，先知道什麼是青蛙，並且摸過青蛙、玩過蝌蚪。作者說內布拉斯加的學校不再用紙筆測驗來評估小學生對電流的知識，而是要他們自己組裝一個電迴路，如果組裝正確，那麼迴路板上的馬達就會動，鈴聲就會響。孩子從鈴聲中，不但得到他的自信心，還確實把電流的知識學進去了。作者的話使我想起李家同教授對臺灣電機系學生的批評，或許新任教育部長真的應該好好看一下這本書。

　　另外，作者建議父母一定要用心替孩子找一個適合他的學校，學校跟孩子的契合實在太重要了，孩子一天有八個小時在學校生活，如果老師的教學、校長的理念不適合他，而他必須每天去受八個小時的罪，實在太可憐了。很多時候，適合哥哥的學校，對弟弟可能不合。我很贊成德國人的話：「沒有什麼天氣叫不好，只有合不合適的衣服。」

　　作者特別強調不讓孩子走上歧路，必須替他指出另一條可行的路，行為才會改善。這點真是臺灣父母最常犯的錯誤，我們常懶得說理，都用權威的命令方式說話：「我告訴你不行就是不行」，使得孩子陽奉陰違、親子關係疏離。其實教養孩子是個藝術，材料不同，雕刻的方法就不同，逆著樹紋雕刻會糟蹋了好木頭。教養孩子絕對不是科學，科學有重複性，甲做成功、乙用同樣方式也會成功，但是教養孩子不是，別人孩子打罵會成材，你家孩子打罵會離家出走，不可東施效顰，以免誤了孩子的一生。

　　世界變化的很快，二○○七年一月七日第一代的蘋果手機問市，在這十三年間，它整個革新了我們生活的方式，改變了我們對世界的看法。有鑑於此，作者花了很多時間和心血重新修訂這本書，添增很多這十年來大腦科學的新知識，以符合時代的需求。這增訂版比以前更像是一盞明燈，在父母走投無路不知該怎麼辦時，指出有效的親子教養方法和它背後的真諦，這真是一本難得的好書，誠摯的推薦給各位讀者。

第1章謎團：缺乏動機的男孩

有比以前更多的年輕人倒在前進美國之夢的路旁，

這個結果就是驚慌的父母不知道為什麼他們的孩子

不能、不願獨立去過自己的生活。

他們像浮萍一樣，到處漂泊，

隨著生命的潮流把他帶到天涯海角。

為什麼有的男孩會成功，有的男孩卻毫不在乎地隨波逐流呢？

他要去哪裡？你能幫得上忙嗎？

這就是你和我要一起探討的核心問題。

第2章第一個因素：學校的改變

假如人是精密的電腦，學習就等於電腦程式，老師就是電腦程式設計師。

假如我們給老師一套正確的標準指示，

那麼只要按一下開關，小孩子就會學習了，

一種有效率、不可能出錯的學習。

只要老師依照指示執行命令，好的學習結果就指日可待。

完全不可能出錯。保證不失敗。只要學生和電腦一樣就行了。

但他們不是。

電腦不需要動機就能做你要它做的事，但是孩子需要動機。

第3章第二個因素：電玩遊戲

電玩遊戲的破壞性效果不在男生的認知能力或他的反應時間上，

而在他的動機和他跟真實世界的連接上。

這些男生可能不是高動機的，但是他們的動機被引導到不對的地方，出軌了。

他們是有動機，但是他們與真實世界分離了。

電玩世界對他們來說更真實，至少比他們的功課、成績和大學申請信的世界更真實。

電玩遊戲特別傾向於提升與真實世界的中斷和分離，

正是因為這種暴力的不真實性。

你的兒子知道他不能對學校中他不喜歡的孩子發射光子魚雷。

第4章第三個因素：ADHD的藥物

「但是這有傷害嗎？」一個家長問我。

假如這種藥物幫助孩子在班上的表現好，又沒有什麼傷害，

為什麼不給他吃呢？

現在，我們就要來看這個重要的問題：有沒有害？害在哪裡？

許多男孩在服用這些藥物時看起來都沒事。

這些父母親所不知道的，而醫生也可能不知道的，

是即使服用這些藥的期間很短，還是可以造成人格的改變。

一個本來很隨和、外向、有冒險精神的男孩，會變得懶惰和易怒。

第5章第四個因素：內分泌幹擾物質

我們已經看到暴露在環境雌激素下會引起肥胖，男女都不能倖免。

暴露在合成的內分泌幹擾物質之下會加速女生的青春期到來，

同樣的化學物質會干擾或減慢男生青春期的歷程。

我們現在也知道這些物質可以引起注意力缺失過動症。

科學家現在發現延後的青春期、過胖和注意力缺失過動症

三者一起發生的機率大於我們預期的，

但還是隻有在男生身上。

我們毒害環境的結果是使女生像男又像女，

而男生是既不像男也不像女。

第6章結果：賴家王老五

當一位研究者問大學生結婚比較好、還是單身一輩子比較好時，

三分之二的男生選結婚比較好，一半以上的女生認為一輩子單身比較好。

二十五年前，三十五到四十歲的美國男人只有百分之八從來沒有結過婚，現在是百分之二十二，而且數字還在往上升。

《賴家王老五》一上演，立刻變成賣座第一的電影，

我很驚訝這個電影竟然非常真確地抓住了我這七年所看到的現象。

男主角是個很聰明的人，他完全可以很成功、很有成就，

但就是沒有任何動機去完成任何真實的事情。

第7章第五個因素：被遺棄神祇的復仇

文化有一部分是由「什麼是一個真正的男人」這個問題的答案所界定的，

忽略這個問題的後果並不是一個雌雄同體的孩子的世代。

結果是一方面，年輕男孩沒有動機去工作或服務，

對無限期住在父母家不覺羞恥，對只拿不給也不覺得羞恥；

另一方面，我們開始得到一個可怕的收成，

一些在乎自己是不是真正男人的年輕人，在沒有成年男子團體的引導下，轉向幫派暴力、藥物濫用或飆車來肯定他們的男性認同。

這個男子氣概的崩盤及貶值，是目前青少年流行文化現象背後的主因。

第8章解藥：讓男孩重拾動機

我並沒有全部的答案，事實上，我還差得遠。

但是我知道我們至少在問對的問題。

那些採取策略的家長從美國的各個角落寄給我成功的故事，

這些故事是不分族群、種族、地理位置，

也不分男孩、少男、二十歲的年輕人。

假如這本書你看到這裡了，你知道我們還有很多的工作要做，

沒有人可以獨力完成，我們必須一起努力才行。

NOTES 注釋

第一章　謎團：缺乏動機的男孩

[1] 本書所有的故事都是真實的，在很多情況下，我更改了當事人的名字及可能會指認出他的細節，以保護他的隱私，電子郵件信箱號碼是得到對方的首肯，以便讀者與他們溝通。

[2] 實例參見Tamar Lewin為《紐約時報》寫的文章： “At College, Women Are Leaving Men in the Dust,” July 9, 2006, pp. A1, A18, A19.

[3] 美國教育部、教育科學研究院的國家教育統計中心（NCES）二○一二年八月所發表的《高等教育：機會和持續差距的研究》（Higher Education: Gaps in Access and Persistence Study,），可在網路上下載全文：http://nces.ed .gov/pubs2012/2012046.pdf（譯註：這是國會要求教育部所做的有關性別和種族在高等教育上就學機會的報告）。

[4] 根據美國教育部二○一五年五月三十日所公佈的數據，二○一三年有1,699,704位女性就讀美國大學的研究所，而只有1,201,160位男性念研究所，所以是58.6%女性VS. 41.4%男性追求學士後的學位。這數據來自美國教育部教育科學研究院的國家教育統計中心《教育統計文摘》（Digest of Education Statistics）圖表303.60「從註冊學生的性別和其他特質來看二○一三年研究所秋季註冊情形」（Total Fall Enrollment in Degree-Granting Postsecondary Institutions, by Level of Enrollment, Sex of Student, and Other Selected Characteristics, 2013）本資料可從網站上下載：http://nces.ed.gov/programs /digest/d14/tables/dt14_303.60.asp。

[5] 這些資料來自美國教育部，教育科學研究院，國家教育統計中心，教育統計文摘，表303.70「從一九七○到二○二四，秋季註冊授予學位的大學部學生的性別實際上課情形」，這份資料可以從網上下載：http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d14/tables/dt14_303.70.asp。二○一四年之後為預測。

[6] 摘自美國教育部，教育科學研究院，國家教育統計中心，二○一五年五月《教育情況》（The Condition of Education 2015, May 2015, p. xxxiv）二○○七年秋季開始他們學士學位的學生中，有59%的學生在六年之內拿到學位，女性的畢業率為62%，比男性的56%高，見http:// nces.ed.gov/pubs2015/2015144.pdf，在一九七六─七七年間，有494,424的男性從美國大學獲得他們的學士學位，而女性只有423,476，所以男性是53.9%而女性只有46.1%，但是到了二○一一─一二年時，男性拿到學士學位的為765,317而女性為1,025,729，也就是說，在所有拿到學士學位的學位中，男性為42.7%而女性為57.3%。一九七六─七七年的資料來自美國教育部，教育科學研究所，國家教育統計中心，《教育統計文摘》，表262「一九七六─七七到二○○二─○三，美國授予學士學位大學學生性別和種族類別統計」，該份資料可以從網路下載：http://nces.ed.gov/programs /digest/d04/tables/dt04_262.asp，二○一一─一二數據來自美國教育部，教育科學研究院，國家教育統計中心《教育統計文摘》表301.10「從大學或專科，學生性別，職員種類和學位不同來看二○一○秋季，二○一一年秋季，和二○一一─一二年賦予學位和不賦予學位高中以上學校學生註冊情形」，這份資料在https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_301 .10.asp。

[7] 同樣請參見前註釋3, 4, 5, 6。

[8] 我的論文題為 “Reclaiming Kindergarten: Making kindergarten less harmful to boys,” published in Psychology of Men and Masculinity, vol. 2, pp. 3-12, 2001. 你可以在以下的網址免費閱覽：www.BoysAdrift.com. 但其實文中所言本書不僅都有，而且多更多。

第二章　第一個因素：學校的改變

[1] Jerry D. Weast, Superintendent of Schools for Montgomery County, Maryland, “Why We Need Rigorous, Full-Day Kindergarten,” from the May 2001 issue of Principal magazine.

[2] Hyo Jung Kang和他二十四位來自美國、克羅西亞、英國、德國和葡萄牙共同作者發表了這篇令人震驚的論文，從胚胎期到嬰兒期、童年期、青春期、成年初期，中期到晚期大腦中基因展現所導致的性別差異，我用「令人震驚」這個字，因為大腦最大的性別差異是在胚胎期的時候。這篇論文的名字是「人類大腦，空間時間的轉錄組」（Spatiotemporal Transcriptome of the Human Brain），二○一一年發表於《自然期刊》（Nature）四七八卷，四八三─四八九頁。

[3] Jay Giedd和同事們「青少年大腦結構男女性別在功能性核磁共振上差異的評論」（Review: Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Male/Female Differences in Human Adolescent Brain Anatomy）刊登在二○一二年的Biology of Sex Differences第三卷一九期。整篇論文可在網路上下載：www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/2042-6410-3-19.pdf。

[4] Jennifer Bramen和同事的「Sex Matters During Adolescence: Testosterone-Related Cortical Thickness Maturation Differs Between Boys and Girls」發表在二○一二年三月二十九日的PLOS One，DOI: 10.1371 /journal.pone.0033850，請同時參考Tuong-Vi Nguyen和同事的「從童年到青春期：跟睪固酮有關的皮質成熟」（Testosterone-Related Cortical Maturation Across Childhood and Adolescence），發表在二○一三年《大腦皮質》（Cerebral Cortex）二三卷，一四二四─一四三二頁。

[5] Rhoshel Lenroot和同事（一共十二位共同作者）的「從童年到青春期大腦發展的性別差異」（Sexual Dimorphism of Brain Developmental Trajectories During Childhood and Adolescence），發表在二○○七年《神經影像》（NeuroImage）三六卷，一○六五─一○七三頁。

[6] Madhura Ingalhalikar和同事的「人類大腦連接組結構在性別上的差異」（Sex Differences in the Structural Connectome of the Human Brain）刊登在二○一四年《美國國家科學院學報》（Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences）一一一卷，八二三─八二八頁。這些作者認為「研究結果顯示男性在腦半球內的溝通最佳，而女性在腦半球間的溝通最佳」（八二三頁），請參考Julia Sacher和她的同事在「人類大腦的性別差異：來自大腦影像的證據」（Sexual Dimorphism in the Human Brain: Evidence from Neuroimaging），二○一三年於《核磁共振》（Magnetic Resonance Imaging）三一卷，三六六─三七五頁。這些研究者在大小孩和小小孩的大腦中發現很大的性別差異，然而Vickie Yu和她的同事用腦磁波儀（magnetoencephalography, MEG）而不是MRI，發現四到九歲兒童與十歲以上的大小孩比起來，有更大的性別差異，請參考她們的論文「語言側化中跟年齡有關的性別差異：兒童的腦磁波儀研究」（Age-Related Sex Differences in Language Lateralization: A Magnetoencephalography Study in Children），二○一四年發表在《發展心理學》期刊（Developmental Psychology）五○卷，二二七六─二二八四頁。同樣的，在六到十七歲兒童的腦磁波儀研究中，Abhijeet Gummadavelli和同事發現六到十三歲兒童的性別差異大於十四到十七歲的孩子，請參考他們的論文「時間空間和字頻在發展中大腦的字辨識作業上：一個腦磁波儀的研究」（Spatiotemporal and Frequency Signatures of Word Recognition in the Developing Brain: A Magnetoencephalographic Study），二○一三年《大腦研究》（Brain Research）一四九八卷，二○─三二頁。腦磁波儀測量電波的活動，而核磁共振顯現大腦結構，這些研究所顯現的性別差異不同，有可能是因為幼年期大腦性別差異的電流活動比較顯著，而童年後期和青春期時，神經連接和大腦結構在性別差異上比較顯著。

[7] 本節的評論是以我在馬裡蘭州蒙哥馬利郡花了十八年時間（一九九○─二○○八）觀察上千名孩童，以及史提派克（Deborah Stipek）一系列的論文為基礎的。請參見：
• Deborah Stipek and colleagues, “Good Beginnings: What Difference Does the Program Make in Preparing Young Children for School?” in the Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, volume 19, pp. 41–66, 1998.
• Deborah Stipek, “Pathways to Constructive Lives: The Importance of Early School Success,” in the book Constructive & Destructive Behavior: Implications for Family, School, & Society, published by the American Psychological Association, pp. 291–315, 2001.
• Tricia Valeski and Deborah Stipek, “Young Children's Feelings About School,” Child Development, volume 72, pp. 1198–1213, 2001. In this review, Valeski and Stipek observe that children who fail to do well in kindergarten develop “negative perceptions of competence,” and those negative perceptions may be “difficult to reverse as children progress through school” (p. 1199).

[8] 這些數據來自二○一四年「經濟合作和發展組織」（Organisation for Economic Co- operation and Development, OECD）的《PISA二○一二年結論：學生知道什麼和可以做些什麼：學生在數學、閱讀和科學上的表現》（PISA 2012 Results: What Students Know and Can Do: Student Performance in Mathematics, Reading, and Science,），www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa -2012-results-volume-i.htm，圖1.4.1，「比較國家和經濟在閱讀上的表現」（Comparing Countries’ and Economies’ Performance in Reading）。

[9] 我不認為七歲才入學是芬蘭教育成功的唯一因素，但是我的確認為這個因素沒有得到它應有的重視。另一個重要的因素是芬蘭老師選拔的標準──比照美國醫科學生的選擇。對於芬蘭教育成另的原因請閱讀Pasi Sahlberg二○一四年出版的《芬蘭教育改革學到什麼？》（Finnish Lessons 2.0: What Can the World Learn from Educational Change in Finland?）紐約：教師學院出版社（New York: Teachers College Press）。

[10] 我從美國教育部，教育科學研究院國家教育統計中心PISA專案表S2拿到這些資料，這個表的標題為「二○一二年十五歲學生在教育系統中PISA科學素養尺度的平均分數」（Average Scores of 15-Year-Old Students on PISA Science Literacy Scale, by Education System: 2012），此表在網站： http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/pisa/pisa2012/pisa2012highlights_4a.asp。上海、香港、臺北和澳門都表現的比美國學生好，二○一二年的資料我在二○一五年十一月時上網去查都還可以查得到。

[11] 例如Daphna Bassok和Sean Reardon「晚入學幼稚園：盛行率、形態和意義」（Academic Redshirting’ in Kindergarten: Prevalence, Patterns, and Implications），發表於二○一三年《教育評鑑和政策分析》（Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis）三五卷，二八三─二九七頁。

[12] Betsy Newell及Dana Haddad的引文都來自Elissa Gootman刊登在《紐約時報》頭版的文章“Preschoolers Grow Older as Parents Seek an Edge,” October 19, 2006.

[13] 參見我的論文 “Reclaiming kindergarten: Making kindergarten less harmful to boys,” Psychology of Men & Masculinity, vol. 2, pp. 3-12, 2001. 你可以到www.BoysAdrift.com網站免費觀看所有的內容。

[14] Elizabeth Lonsdorf, Lynn Eberly, and Anne Pusey, “Sex Differences in Learning in Chimpanzees,” Nature, volume 428, pp. 715–716, 2004.

[15] Elizabeth Lonsdorf和同事們的「男孩永遠是男孩：野外黑猩猩嬰兒在社交互動上的性別差異」（Boys Will Be Boys: Sex Differences in Wild Infant Chimpanzee Social Interactions），二○一四年刊登在《動物行為》（Animal Behavior）八八卷，七九─八三頁。另外Lonsdorf和她的同事還有一篇「野外黑猩猩嬰兒性別差異的顯現」（Sex Differences in Wild Chimpanzee Behavior Emerge During Infancy），發表於二○一四年六月九日的PLOS One，DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099099。

[16] Derek Wildman和他的同事「天擇時人類和黑猩猩之間99.4%非同義突變DNA的意義」（Implications of Natural Selection in Shaping 99.4 Percent Nonsynonymous DNA Identity Between Humans and Chimpanzees），二○○三年《美國國家科學院學報》第一○○期，七一八一─七一八八頁。

[17] 我對人類和靈長類視覺的性別差異分析，請看我的書《棉花糖女孩》，臺灣遠流出版公司出版，第一三二─一三八頁，同時請看Robert Handa和Robert McGivern的論文「視覺系統中性別在類固醇、荷爾蒙、感受體和視知覺與認知上的差異」（Steroid Hormones, Receptors, and Perceptual and Cognitive Sex Differences in the Visual System），二○一五年發表於Current Eye Research四○卷，一一○─一二七頁。而我對聽力性別差異的分析，請看我的論文「聽力的性別差異：教室中最佳措施的意義」（Sex Differences in Hearing: Implications for Best Practice in the Classroom），二○一○年發表於Advances in Gender and Education第二期一三─二一頁。對於跨物種和感官（聽覺、視覺和嗅覺）的評論，請看Joseph Schroeder's在《心理學性別研究手冊》（Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology）的章節，二三五─二五七頁。這本書是由J. C. Chrisler和D. R. McCreary主編，紐約Springer公司二○一○年出版。

[18] Gillian Brown and Alan Dixon, “The Development of Behavioural Sex Differences in Infant Rhesus Macaques,” Primates, volume 41, pp. 63–77, 2000.

[19] 靈長類學家不用保姆（babysitting）這個字，他們喜歡用「異親」（alloparenting）。當媽媽需要去找食物時，牠會把寶寶交給女兒，但不會交給兒子，我們的靈長類親戚一般都是用這種異親撫育，都是交給女兒照顧，請看David Watts和Anne Pusey「大猿的少年和青少年行為」（Behavior of Juvenile and Adolescent Great Apes）一四八─一六七頁，在Michael Pereira和Lynn Fairbanks主編之《少年的靈長類：生命史，發展和行為》（Juvenile Primates: Life History, Development, and Behavior），紐約牛津大學出版社，二○○二年出版。

[20] Carolyn Pope Edwards, “Behavioral Sex Differences in Children of Diverse Cultures: The Case of Nurturance to Infants,” chapter 22 in Pereira and Fairbanks, Juvenile Primates.

[21] 我們教男生和女生未成年不可以喝酒，但是在男女合校的情況下，忽略這條法律會使你在男生的眼裡地位升高，因此，現在發現，念男女合校的高中女生及男女合校的大學女生，酗酒及因酒後而鬧事的情形比同一社區讀女校的女生比例來得高。請見Avshalom Caspi, Donald Lynam, Terrie Moffitt, and Phil Silva, “Unraveling Girls’ Delinquency: Biological, dispositional, and contextual contributions to adolescent misbehavior.” Developmental Psychology, vol. 29, pp. 19-30, 1993。至於女子大學的女生跟其他條件相同但是男女合校的女生比較的研究，請見George Dowdall, Miriam Curtin的「十五─十六歲女孩的抽菸和喝酒行為：男性的同儕對她們有影響嗎？」（Smoking and Drinking Among 15–16-Year-Old Girls: Do Male Peers Have an Influence?），二○○四年《愛爾蘭醫學科學期刊》（Irish Journal of Medical Science）第一七三卷，一九一─一九二頁。

[22] Marianne Hurst, “Girls Seen to Help Avert Violence,” Education Week, May 18, 2005, p. 12.

[23] 例如參見Omar Yousaf, Elizabeth Grunfeld, and Myra Hunter, “A Systematic Review of the Factors Associated with Delays in Medical and Psychological Help-Seeking Among Men,” Health Psychology Review, volume 9, pp. 264–276, 2015.

[24] 雖然很多研究者都注意到女生問路跟男生不同，但是Deborah Tannen把這一點說明的最清楚，請看她的書《你不瞭解男生和女生在聊天上的不同》（You Just Don't Understand: Men and Women in Conversation）修訂版，紐約HarperCollins二○○一年出版。

[25] Pereira and Fairbanks, Juvenile Primates, Part II, “Growing into Different Worlds,” p. 75.

[26] Russell Mittermeier and colleagues, “Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates, 2004–2006,” Primate Conservation, volume 20, pp. 1–28, 2006.

[27] Lisbeth B. Lindahl and Mikael Heimann, “Social Proximity in Early Mother-Infant Interactions: Implications for Gender Differences?” Early Development and Parenting, volume 6, pp. 83–88, 1997.

[28] 參見Jianzhong Xu, “Gender and Homework Management Reported by High School Students,” Educational Psychology, volume 26, pp. 73–91, 2006; and also Wei-Cheng Mau and Richard Lynn, “Gender Differences in Homework and Test Scores in Mathematics, Reading and Science at Tenth and Twelfth Grade,” Psychology, Evolution, and Gender, volume 2, pp. 119–125, 2000.

[29] Lynne Rogers and Sue Hallam, “Gender Differences in Approaches to Studying for the GCSE Among High-Achieving Pupils,” Educational Studies, volume 32, pp. 59–71, 2006.

[30] Angela Lee Duckworth and Martin E. P. Seligman, “Self-Discipline Gives Girls the Edge: Gender in Self-Discipline, Grades, and Achievement Test Scores,” Journal of Educational Psychology, volume 98, pp. 198–208, 2006.

[31] Valeski and Stipek, “Young Children's Feelings About School,” cited above.

[32] Eva Pomerantz, Ellen Altermatt, and Jill Saxon, “Making the Grade but Feeling Distressed: Gender Differences in Academic Performance and Internal Distress,” Journal of Educational Psychology, volume 94, pp. 396–404, 2002.

[33] Duckworth and Seligman, “Self-Discipline Gives Girls the Edge.”

[34] Rene A. Spitz, “Hospitalism: An Enquiry into the Genesis of Psychiatric Conditions in Early Childhood,” Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, volume 1, pp. 53–74, 1945.

[35] Richard Louv, Last Child in the Woods: Saving Our Children from Nature-Deficit Disorder (Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books, 2005).

[36] Louv, Last Child in the Woods, p. 57.

[37] Louv, Last Child in the Woods, pp. 63, 67.

[38] Quoted in Louv, Last Child in the Woods, p. 66.

[39] Quoted in Louv, Last Child in the Woods, p. 104.

[40] 例如參見Andrea Faber Taylor and Frances E. Kuo, “Could Exposure to Everyday Green Spaces Help Treat ADHD? Evidence from Children's Play Settings,” Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, volume 3, pp. 281–303, 2011.

[41] 對於美國過去三十年來，ADHD診斷率的上升以及它升起的背後原因，請看我的書《教養，你可以做得更好》遠流出版，第三章。

[42] Quoted in Louv, Last Child in the Woods, p. 47.

[43] 這個最簡單的定義是取自奈瑟（Ulric Neisser）。奈瑟是一九六七年創造出「認知心理學」（cognitive psychology）的第一人，他對於認知（cognition）的定義如下：「這個名詞『認知』是指感覺輸入在轉變、減少、精緻化、儲存、提取和使用所有的過程。它主要是訊息處理的過程，就算是沒有相關的刺激，如幻覺時和心像時，它的運作歷程仍是認知的一部分。認知在這麼廣的定義下，就跟人類所有可以做的事情都有關了，每一個心理的現象都是認知的現象。」（Ulric Neisser, Cognitive Psychology, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967, p. 4; emphasis added.）

[44] Gabrielle Weiss and Lily Hechtman, “The Hyperactive Child Syndrome,” Science, volume 205, pp. 1348–1354, 1979.

[45] Alan Schwarz and Sarah Cohen, “A.D.H.D. Seen in 11% of U.S. Children as Diagnoses Rise,” New York Times, March 31, 2013.

[46] Jay Mathews的文章叫做「研究對男孩危機產生懷疑：成績的進步逼近女生的領先」（Study Casts Doubt on the Boy Crisis: Improving Test Scores Cut into Girls’ Lead），《華盛頓郵報》二○○六年六月二十六日頭版。

[47] Judith Warner, “What Boy Crisis?,” New York Times, July 3, 2006.

[48] Judith Warner, “Is There Really a ‘Boy Crisis’? Most Boys Are Doing Just Fine,” March 21, 2013, http://ideas.time.com/2013/03/21/the-boy-crisis-is-it-fictional.

[49] David Von Drehle, “The Myth About Boys,” Time, July 26, 2007.

[50] 關於種族、性別和社會階級交互作用的討論，請見Richard Whitmire和Susan McGee Bailey二○一○年春的對話「性別差異」（Gender Gap），Education Next網站http://educationnext.org/gender-gap。

[51] 克萊費爾教授是在二○○六年六月六日白宮所舉辦的「幫助美國年輕人」（Helping America's Youth）研討會上報告的資料。你可以在www.singlesexschools.org/Kleinfeld.htm.網站上讀到全文及她的分析。

[52] 你可以去美國教育部，教育科學研究院，國家教育統計中心，國家教育進步評估（National Assessment of Education Progress, NAEP）的網址http://nces.ed.gov/nations reportcard/naepdata點下Main NDE（NAEP Data Explorer），就會看到我在這一章中所有引用的NAEP 數據，這些數據來自二○一一年寫作評估，這資料在二○一五年十一月仍可查到。

[53] Judy Willis, “The Gully in the ‘Brain Glitch’ Theory,” Educational Leadership, volume 64, pp. 68–73, 2007. The quotation comes from p. 72.

[54] Mark Bauerlein and Sandra Stotsky, “Why Johnny Won't Read,” Washington Post, January 25, 2005, p. A15.

[55] 請看William Killgore、Mika Oki和Deborah Yurgelun-Todd的「大腦發展上杏仁核對情緒面孔反應的性別改變」（Sex-Specific Developmental Changes in Amygdala Responses to Affective Faces），二○○一年Neuro-Report第十二卷四二七─四三三頁；William Killgore和Deborah Yurgelun-Todd的「在看到情緒面孔時杏仁核活化的性別差異」（Sex Differences in Amygdala Activation During the Perception of Facial Affect），二○○一年Neuro- Report第十二卷，二五四三─二五四七頁。和William Killgore和Deborah Yurgelun-Todd的「在看到情緒面孔時，前額葉皮質和杏仁核側化上跟性有關的發展差異」（Sex-Related Developmental Differences in the Lateralized Activation of the Prefrontal Cortex and Amygdala During Perception of Facial Affect），二○○四年Perceptual and Motor Skills第九九卷，三七一─三九一頁。Dr. Yurgelun-Todd博士現在改到猶他大學（University of Utah）任教。

[56] 北美洲各地都有「雪就是應該留在地上」（引申不應拿來打雪球戰）的政策，例如加拿大、安大略省、約克學區、牽牛花公立學校（Morning Glory Public School of the York Region District School Board）就提醒學生「雪無論何時都應該在地上而不在學生手上」，這條規則自二○一三年十二月起就刊登在學校的報紙上，也公佈在網路上，www.yrdsb.ca/schools/morningglory.ps/NewsEvents /Documents/Dec%202013%20vol%201%20mgps.pdf。

[57] 請見Stephanie Martinez「一個發狂的系統：一個零容忍政策如何影響學校？」（A System Gone Berserk: How Are Zero-Tolerance Policies Really Affecting Schools?）刊登在《防止學校失敗》（Preventing School Failure）第五三卷一五三─一五八頁，二○○九年；以及Russell Skiba和Kimberly Knesting的「零容忍，零證據：學校管教方式的分析」（Zero Tolerance, Zero Evidence: An Analysis of School Disciplinary Practice），二○○一年New Directions for Youth Development九二期，一七─四三頁。

[58] Margaret Shih, Todd Pittinsky, and Nalini Ambady, “Stereotype Susceptibility: Identity Salience and Shifts in Quantitative Performance,” Psychological Science, volume 10, pp. 80–83, 1999.

[59] 普林斯頓的心理學家Joel Cooper and Kimberlee Weaver在他們合著的Gender and Computers: Understanding the digital divide (Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2003)中，描述了許多年輕女孩在數學和科學測驗中的表現會低於預期，尤其在提醒她們性別刻板印象之後。特別參見chapter 3, “The Social Context of Computing” 和chapter 5, “A Threat in the Air.” 兩位作者同時描述月在單一性別班級中的女孩平均的表現有多好，部分原因可能是不再有刻板印象的威脅，參見chapter 7, “Solutions: Single-sex schools and classrooms?”

[60] Roy Baumeister and colleagues , “Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles?” Psychological Science in the Public Interest, volume 4, pp. 1–44, 2003.

[61] Martinez, “A System Gone Berserk”; Skiba and Knesting, “Zero Tolerance, Zero Evidence,” both cited above.

[62] 在這個主題經典的學術論文為 “The Classroom Avenger”。作者為James McGee及Caren DeBernardo，最初發表在The Forensic Examiner, vol. 8, May-June 1999。兩位作者都是Sheppard Pratt精神病院的醫生。這篇論文可以免費在Sheppard Pratt醫院的網站http://www.sheppardpratt.org/Documents/classavenger.pdf上看到。

[63] Peter Langman, “School Shooters: The Warning Signs,” Forensic Digest, Winter-Spring 2012.

[64] 這一段中所引用的話全來自Dave Cullen's Columbine (New York: Twelve, 2010), pp. 307–308.

[65] Cullen, Columbine, p. 309.

[66] “Court Found Cho Mentally Ill,” The Smoking Gun, www.thesmokinggun.com/file/court-found-cho-mentally-ill.

[67] Michael Luo, “U.S. Rules Made Killer Ineligible to Purchase Gun,” New York Times, April 21, 2007.

[68] 這一段中所引用的話全來自二○○七年四月十八日《紐約時報》所刊登Manny Fernandez和Marc Santora的「槍手顯現憤怒的信號」（Gunman Showed Signs of Anger）。

[69] 這段中二個引用的話來自二○○七年八月三十日《紐約時報》所刊登Ian Urbina的「維琴尼亞理工學院因射擊案而被批評」（Virginia Tech Criticized for Actions in Shooting）。

[70] Liz Klimas, “10-Year-Old Suspended for an Imaginary Weapon,” The Blaze, December 9, 2013, www.theblaze.com/stories/2013/12/09/10-year-old-suspended-for-shooting-imaginary-bow-and-arrow.

[71] Donna St. George, “Anne Arundel Officials Decline to Clear Record of Second-Grader Who Made ‘Pastry Gun,’” Washington Post, May 15, 2013.

[72] 這個例子來自Paul Rosenzweig和Trent England 在二○○四年八月五日所寫的「普通常識的零容忍」（Zero Tolerance for Common Sense），可見傳承基金會（Heritage Foundation）網站www.heritage.org/research/commentary/2004 /08/zero-tolerance-for-common-sense。

[73] 拉丁原文為Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret，摘自Epistles of Horace卷一 §十第二四行。

第三章　第二個因素：電玩遊戲

[1] 我在本書中提到的global Halo（《最後一戰》）比賽是在二○○五年五月份舉辦的，雖然主辦者要求參與者必須十八歲以上才能進入，但是會場並無任何機制來執行這個規定。電玩遊戲競賽現在叫做「電子運動」（e-sports），從二○○五年就有了，《紐約時報》二○一四年八月三十日有篇文章「電子運動吸引了真正的人群和大量的金錢」（In E-sports, Video Gamers Draw Real Crowds and Big Money），記者Nick Wingfield把這個競賽形容為Defense of the Ancients (DOTA) 競賽，是兩隊電玩專家在西雅圖籃球場比賽，獎金高達一千一百萬美元，現場觀賽的門票很貴但仍有一萬一千人去觀賽。芝加哥的Robert Morris大學提供贏家五十萬美金的獎學金，就像運動員的獎學金一樣，現在美國的長春藤盟校（Ivy League）也提供校際比賽。Wingfield的文章可在網路上下載，www.nytimes.com/2014/08/31/technology/esports-explosion- brings-opportunity-riches-for-video-gamers.html。

[2] John S. Watson, “Memory and ‘Contingency Analysis’ in Infant Learning,” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, volume 13, pp. 55–76, 1967.

[3] Henry Gleitman, Psychology (New York: W. W. Norton, 1980), p. 147.

[4] 尼采自己在他寫自由意志（free spirit）時特別強調這一點，他的free spirit是指一個人受他自己意志去做，不受其他考量的幹擾「這個人有很多直覺反應，對戰爭、對勝利的直覺，這些直覺必須超越其他的，如快樂的直覺，一個自由的人，更重要的是他的心智、精神變得自由了──踩著小商人、基督徒、牛、女人、英國人和其他民主人士的大夢」這是我的翻譯，德文的原文是“Freiheit bedeutet, daß die männlichen, die kriegs-und siegsfrohen Instinkte die Herrschaft haben über andre Instinkte, zum Beispiel über die des »Glücks.” Der freigewordne Mensch, um wie viel mehr der freige- wordne Geist, tritt mit Füßen auf die verächtliche Art von Wohlbe- finden, von dem Krämer, Christen, Kühe, Weiber, Engländer und andre Demokraten träumen。取自尼采一八八九年的《偶像的黃昏》（Götzen-Dämmerung）第三八段，很容易在網站上找到，例如www.textlog.de /8119.html。

[5] 引自section 349 of Nietzsche's The Will to Power, 譯者為Walter Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale (New York: Vintage Books, 1968), p. 191.

[6] 這些例子來自Mike Musgrove在《華盛頓郵報》（Washington Post）上的文章 “Family Game Night, version 2.0,” March 4, 2007, pp. F1, F4.

[7] 看這個廣告最簡單的方法是去YouTube，在搜尋的地方打「Greatness Awaits, PS4」。

[8] Alan Castel, Jay Pratt, and Emily Drummond, “The Effects of Action Video Game Experience on the Time Course of Inhibition of Return and the Efficiency of Visual Search,” Acta Psychologica, volume 119, pp. 217–230, 2005.

[9] Edward Swing和他同事的「暴露在電視和電玩遊戲之下和注意力發展的問題」（Television and Video Game Exposure and the Development of Attention Problems），二○一○年刊登在《小兒科期刊》（Pediatrics）第一二六卷，二一四─二二一頁。也請看Douglas Gentile和他同事合著的「玩電玩遊戲，注意力問題和衝動性：來自雙向因果關係的證據」（Video Game Playing, Attention Problems, and Impulsiveness: Evidence of Bidirectional Causality）刊登在二○一二年Psychology of Popular Media Culture卷一，六二─七○頁。

[10] Jay Hull, Ana Draghici, and James Sargent, “A Longitudinal Study of Risk-Glorifying Video Games and Reckless Driving,” Psychology of Popular Media Culture, volume 1, pp. 244–253, 2012.

[11] Kathleen Beullens and Jan Van den Bulck, “Predicting Young Drivers’ Car Crashes: Music Video Viewing and the Playing of Driving Games. Results from a Prospective Cohort Study,” Media Psychology, volume 16, issue 1, 2013.

[12] Stervo Mario和他的同事合著的「年輕男性打電玩頻率跟腹部脂肪堆積和高糖、低纖飲食的關係」（Frequent Video-Game Playing in Young Males is Associated with Central Adiposity and High-Sugar, Low-Fibre Dietary Consumption），二○一四年於Eating and Weight Disorders卷一九，五一五─五二○頁。請看Catherine Berkey和她的同事合著的「前青春期和青春期男生和女生在活動、飲食和體重改變的長期追蹤研究」（Activity, Dietary Intake, and Weight Changes in a Longitudinal Study of Preadolescent and Adolescent Boys and Girls），二○○○年刊登在Pediatrics期刊，一○五卷e五六頁。以及Elizabeth Vandewater和她同事合著的「看電視和打電動遊戲與肥胖症及活動程度的關係」（Linking Obesity and Activity Level with Children's Television and Video Game Use），二○○四年《青少年期刊》（Journal of Adolescence）二七卷七一─八五頁。

[13] Jean-Philippe Chaput和他同事合著的「青少年打電玩會增加食量：一個隨機的交叉研究」（Video Game Playing Increases Food Intake in Adolescents: A Randomized Crossover Study），二○一一年American Journal of Clinical Nutrition，九三卷，一一九六─一二○三頁。

[14] Megan Mathers and colleagues, “Electronic Media Use and Adolescent Health and Well-Being: Cross-Sectional Community Study,” Academic Pediatrics, volume 9, pp. 307–314, 2009.

[15] Brock Bastian, Jolanda Jetten, and Helena Radke, “Cyber-Dehumanization: Violent Video Game Play Diminishes Our Humanity,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, volume 48, pp. 486–491, 2012. See also Tobias Greitemeyer and Neil McLatchie, “Denying Humanness to Others: A Newly Discovered Mechanism by Which Violent Video Games Increase Aggressive Behavior,” Psychological Science, volume 22, pp. 659–665, 2011.

[16] Jay Hull and colleagues, “A Longitudinal Study of Risk-Glorifying Video Games and Behavioral Deviance,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, volume 107, pp. 300–325, 2014.

[17] Julia Fischer and colleagues, “The Delinquent Media Effect: Delinquency-Reinforcing Video Games Increase Players’ Attitudinal and Behavioral Inclination Toward Delinquent Behavior,” Psychology of Popular Media Culture, volume 1, pp. 201–205, 2012. See also Peter Holtz and Markus Appel, “Internet Use and Video Gaming Predict Problem Behavior in Early Adolescence,” Journal of Adolescence, volume 34, pp. 49–58, 2011.

[18] Alessandro Gabbiadini and colleagues, “Interactive Effect of Moral Disengagement and Violent Video Games on Self-Control, Cheating, and Aggression,” Social Psychological and Personality Science, volume 5, pp. 451–458, 2014.

[19] Mirko Pawlikowski and Matthias Brand, “Excessive Internet Gaming and Decision Making: Do Excessive World of Warcraft Players Have Problems in Decision Making Under Risky Conditions?” Psychiatry Research, volume 188, pp. 428–433, 2011.

[20] Jih-Hsuan Lin, “Do Video Games Exert Stronger Effects on Aggression Than Film? The Role of Media Interactivity and Identification on the Association of Violent Content and Aggressive Outcomes,” Computers in Human Behavior, volume 29, pp. 535–543, 2013.

[21] Marc Sestir and Bruce Bartholow, “Violent and Nonviolent Video Games Produce Opposing Effects on Aggressive and Prosocial Outcomes,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, volume 46, pp. 934–942, 2010. See also Muniba Saleem, Craig Anderson, and Douglas Gentile, “Effects of Prosocial, Neutral, and Violent Video Games on College Students’ Affect,” Aggressive Behavior, volume 38, pp. 263–271, 2012.

[22] Bruce Bartholow and colleagues, “Chronic Violent Video Game Exposure and Desensitization to Violence: Behavioral and Event-Related Brain Potential Data,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, volume 42, pp. 532–539, 2006. See also Tom Hummer and colleagues, “Short-Term Violent Video Game Play by Adolescents Alters Prefrontal Activity During Cognitive Inhibition,” Media Psychology, volume 13, pp. 136–154, 2010.

[23] Christopher Barlett and Christopher Rodeheffer, “Effects of Realism on Extended Violent and Nonviolent Video Game Play on Aggressive Thoughts, Feelings, and Physiological Arousal,” Aggressive Behavior, volume 35, pp. 213–224, 2009.

[24] Craig Anderson and colleagues, “Violent Video Game Effects on Aggression, Empathy, and Prosocial Behavior in Eastern and Western Countries: A Meta-Analytic Review,” Psychological Bulletin, volume 136, pp. 151–173, 2010. For a thoughtful comment on this paper─observing that some doubters will never be persuaded, no matter how strong the evidence─see L. Rowell Huesmann, “Nailing the Coffin Shut on Doubts That Violent Video Games Stimulate Aggression: Comment on Anderson et al. 2010,” Psychological Bulletin, volume 136, pp. 179–181, 2010.

[25] See Craig Anderson, “Violent Video Games: Myths, Facts, and Unanswered Questions,” Psychological Science Agenda, volume 16, October 2003.

[26] Alito法官的完整意見書可在美國最高法院網站：www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/10pdf/08-1448.pdf找到，書中所引用的這段來自意見書的第十二和十四頁。

[27] 這段所引用的句子來自Patrick Welsh在《華盛頓郵報》二○○四年十二月五日的文章：「這不是競賽，男孩會長大成男人，但是他們還是會選擇電玩遊戲」（It's No Contest; Boys Will Be Men, and They’ll Still Choose Video Games）。

[28] 你可上網看安得生教授的綱要：Iowa State University of Science and Technology, Department of Psychology, www.psychology.iastate.edu/faculty/caa/VG_recommendations.html.

[29] Welsh, “It's No Contest,” p. B1.

[30] Tamar Lewin, “At Colleges, Women Are Leaving Men in the Dust,” New York Times, July 9, 2006, pp. A1, A18, A19.

[31] Lewin, “At Colleges,” pp. A18, A19.

[32] Craig Anderson, Douglas Gentile, and Katherine Buckley, Violent Video Game Effects on Children and Adolescents (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 66.

[33] David Riley, “Average Time Spent Playing Games on Mobile Devices Has Increased 57 Percent Since 2012,” January 27 2015, online at NPD Group, www.npd.com.

[34] 我把AAP的守則上傳到：www.leonardsax .com/guidelines.pdf，這個守則並沒有特別說明怎麼去用監控的軟體，但是明確建議父母不讓孩子在沒人監督之下去上網，除非你能親自監督到你孩子在網上所做的每一件事情，唯一能防止他們隨意上網瀏覽的方法就是安裝一種監督的軟體，同時伴隨著父母親的控制。

第四章　第三個因素：ＡＤＨＤ的藥物

[1] “National Institute of Mental Health Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD Follow-up: Changes in Effectiveness and Growth After the End of Treatment,” Pediatrics, volume 113, pp. 762–769, 2004. See also Stephen Faraone and colleagues, “Effects of Lisdexamfetamine Dimesylate [Vyvanse] Treatment for ADHD on Growth,” Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, volume 49, pp. 24–32, 2010.

[2] Peter Breggin博士是認為注意力缺失過動症是藥廠用來賣藥的幌子的作家之一，參見他的著作Talking Back to Ritalin: What Doctors Aren't Telling You About Stimulants for Children (Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1998)；以及The Ritalin Fact Book: What Your Doctor Won't Tell You (New York: Perseus, 2002)。

[3] American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (Washington, DC: APA, 2013), p. 59. (DSM-5 hereafter.)

[4] 如我在我的書《教養，你可以做得更好》（遠流出版）中指出，一九七九年時，只有1.2%的美國孩子，即一千個人中有十二個，被診斷為我們現在稱之為ADHD的孩子，那個時候叫做「童年期動感過度反應症」（hyperkinetic reaction of childhood），男女生的比例為二比一或更多，所以我們可以推測在一九七九年時應該是1.6%的男生和0.8%的女生（這樣得出的平均值為1.2%）。到二○一三年時，美國疾病控制和預防中心（Centers for Disease Control and Prevention）宣佈美國高中男生有20%被診斷為ADHD，幾乎是一九七九年的十倍，從1.6%漲到20%，請看《教養，你可以做得更好》第三章。

[5] The phrase “medicate young minds” is borrowed from Elizabeth Roberts's article, “A Rush to Medicate Young Minds,” Washington Post, October 8, 2006, p. B7.

[6] DSM-5對對立反抗症（313.81, p. 462）的定義包括：
• 常常跟大人爭辨
• 故意違反或拒絕去做有權力人士的要求
• 常常故意去惹惱別人

[7] Jennifer Harris, Psychotherapy Networker, February 2006, quoted in Roberts's article, “A Rush to Medicate Young Minds.”

[8] Leonard Sax and Kathleen Kautz, “Who First Suggests the Diagnosis of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder? A Survey of Primary-Care Pediatricians, Family Physicians, and Child Psychiatrists,” Annals of Family Medicine, volume 1, pp. 171–174, 2003.

[9] Gabrieli醫生的報告題目是「教育大腦」（Educating the Brain），你可以上Fleetwood Onsite Conference Recording的網站去買這份光碟，www.fleetwoodonsite .com在搜索的地方打入Gabrieli這個字就會看到，一片光碟為美金十五元。

[10] 這章節大部分的資料，尤其是註釋，是來自我的書《教養，你可以做得更好》裡的討論。

[11] 下面是Carlezon在這個題目上的三篇論文：
• 「早期被餵食派醋甲酯（利他能）老鼠的長期行為效果」（Enduring Behavioral Effects of Early Exposure to Methylphe- nidate in Rats）刊登在二○○三年《生物精神醫學》（Biological Psychiatry）第五四卷，一三三○─一三三七頁。
•「瞭解早期服用精神藥物的神經生物後果」（Understanding the Neurobiological Consequences of Early Exposure to Psychotropic Drugs）刊登在二○○四年《神經藥物學》（Neuropharmacology）四七卷附件一，四七─六○頁。
• 「早期暴露在派醋甲酯會降低老鼠大腦刺激回饋所引發古柯鹼的增強效果」（Early Developmental Exposure to Methylphenidate Reduces Cocaine-Induced Potentiation of Brain Stimulation Reward in Rats）二○○五年《生物精神醫學》（Biological Psychiatry）五七卷一二○─一二五頁。

[12] 很多學術研究都顯現派醋甲酯和安非他命──這兩個是藥物的主要成分──會對發展中的大腦多巴胺感受體聚集的地方有長期的改變，這個幹擾效應在伏隔核的地方最大，這不令人驚奇，因為伏隔核正是多巴胺感受體最密集的地方，密西根大學的Terry Robinson和Bryan Kolb是最早發現低劑的安非他命會導致伏隔核神經細胞受損的幾個人之一，他們第一次把這發現寫在「使用安非他命所導致的伏隔核和前額葉皮質神經細胞持久的結構改變」（Persistent Structural Modifications in Nucleus Accumbens and Prefrontal Cortex Neurons Produced by Previous Experiences with Amphetamine）刊登在《神經科學期刊》（Journal of Neuroscience）一九九七年一七卷八四九一─八四九七頁。They later reviewed this emerging field in their article “Structural Plasticity Associated with Exposure to Drugs of Abuse,” Neuropharmacology, volume 47, pp. 33–46, 2004. See also Claire Advokat, “Literature Review: Update on Amphetamine Neurotoxicity and Its Relevance to the Treatment of ADHD,” Journal of Attention Disorders, volume 11, pp. 8–16, 2007. Other relevant articles include (in alphabetical order):
• Esther Gramage and colleagues, “Periadolescent Amphetamine Treatment Causes Transient Cognitive Disruptions and Long-Term Changes in Hippocampal LTP,” Addiction Biology, volume 18, pp. 19–29, 2013.
• Rochellys D. Heijtz, Bryan Kolb, and Hans Forssberg, “Can a Therapeutic Dose of Amphetamine During Pre-adolescence Modify the Pattern of Synaptic Organization in the Brain?” European Journal of Neuroscience, volume 18, pp. 3394–3399, 2003.
• Yong Li and Julie Kauer, “Repeated Exposure to Amphetamine Disrupts Dopaminergic Modulation of Excitatory Synaptic Plasticity and Neurotransmission in Nucleus Accumbens,” Synapse, volume 51, pp. 1–10, 2004.
• Manuel Mameli and Christian Luscher, “Synaptic Plasticity and Addiction: Learning Mechanisms Gone Awry,” Neuropharmacology, volume 61, pp. 1052–1059, 2011.
• Shao-Pii Onn and Anthony Grace, “Amphetamine Withdrawal Alters Bistable States and Cellular Coupling in Rat Prefrontal Cortex and Nucleus Accumbens Neurons Recorded in Vivo,” Journal of Neuroscience, volume 20, pp. 2332–2345, 2000.
• Margery Pardey and colleagues, “Long-Term Effects of Chronic Oral Ritalin Administration on Cognitive and Neural Development in Adolescent Wistar Kyoto Rats,” Brain Sciences, volume 2, pp. 375–404, 2012.
• Scott Russo and colleagues, “The Addicted Synapse: Mechanisms of Synaptic and Structural Plasticity in the Nucleus Accumbens,” Trends in Neuroscience, volume 33, pp. 267–276, 2010.
• Louk J. Vanderschuren和他的同事合著的論文「老鼠只要暴露在安非他命一次就足以引發長效的行為，神經內分泌和神經化學上的敏感度」（A Single Exposure to Amphetamine Is Sufficient to Induce Long-term Behavioral, Neuroendocrine, and Neurochemical Sensitization in Rats）刊登在一九九九年的《神經科學期刊》（Journal of Neuroscience）第一九卷，九五七九─九五八六頁。若想了解神經化學背後的機制、興奮型處方藥物和古柯鹼的異同，以及服用這種藥物的長期風險，請看Heinz Steiner和Vincent Van Waes合著的「與上癮有關的基因調控：暴露在認知強化物與其他興奮劑的風險」（Addiction-Related Gene Regulation: Risks of Exposure to Cognitive Enhancers vs. Other Psychostimulants）發表在二○一三年Progress in Neurobiology第一○○卷六○─八○頁。

[13] 現在大家都同意派醋甲酯的作用是增加突觸多巴胺的活化，請看Nora Volkow和她同事合著的「派醋甲酯在大腦多巴胺上效用的影像證據：治療ADHD的新模式」（Imaging the Effects of Methylphenidate on Brain Dopamine: New Model on Its Therapeutic Actions for Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder）刊登在二○○五年的《生物的精神醫學》（Biological Psychiatry）五七卷一四一○─一四一五頁。人們很早也知道安非他命是模仿多巴胺在大腦的活動，而多巴胺系統正是ADHD的關鍵，請看James Swanson和他同事合寫的「注意力缺失症中的多巴胺和麩胺酸」（Dopamine and Glutamate in Attention Deficit Disorder）收錄在Werner Schmidt和Maarten Reith編輯、二○○五年出版的《精神疾病中的多巴胺和麩胺酸》（Dopamine and Glutamate in Psychiatric Disorders）一書中的二九三─三一五頁。

[14] 想知道伏隔核在動機上所扮演的關鍵角色的人，請看Carlezon醫生的論文「報酬和厭惡的生物基質：伏隔核活化的假設」（Biological Substrates of Reward and Aversion: A Nucleus Accumbens Activity Hypothesis）刊登在二○○九年的《神經藥物學》（Neuropharmacology）五六卷附件一，一二二─一三二頁。

[15] 參見Elseline Hoekzema and colleagues, “Stimulant Drugs Trigger Transient Volumetric Changes in the Human Ventral Striatum,” Brain Structure and Function, volume 219, pp. 23–34, 2013, especially figures 2 and 3. See also Monica Franco Emch, “Ventro-Striatal / Nucleus Accumbens Alterations in Adult ADHD: Effects of Pharmacological Treatment: A Neuroimaging Region of Interest Study,” Universitat Pompeu Fabra, 2015, especially figure 2. The full text is online at http://repositori.upf.edu/bitstream/handle/10230/24651/Franco_2015.pdf.

[16] 參見Scott Mackey and colleagues, “A Voxel-Based Morphometry Study of Young Occasional Users of Amphetamine-Type Stimulants and Cocaine,” Drug and Alcohol Dependence, volume 135, pp. 104–111, 2014.

[17] L. J. Seidman and colleagues, “Dorsolateral Prefrontal and Anterior Cingulate Cortex Volumetric Abnormalities in Adults with Attention Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder Identified by Magnetic Resonance Imaging,” Biological Psychiatry, volume 60, pp. 1071–1080, 2006. See also Hoekzema and colleagues, “Stimulant Drugs,” and Emch, “Ventro-Striatal / Nucleus Accumbens Alterations,” both cited above.

[18] 參見Nicolas Carriere and colleagues, “Apathy in Parkinson's Disease Is Associated with Nucleus Accumbens Atrophy: A Magnetic Resonance Imaging Shape Analysis,” Movement Disorders, volume 29, pp. 897–903, 2014. See also Robert Paul and colleagues, “Apathy Is Associated with Volume of the Nucleus Accumbens in Patients Infected with HIV,” Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, volume 17, pp. 167–171, 2005.

[19] 有關注意力缺失過動症神經基質的性別差異概論，請參見我的論文“The Diagnosis and Treatment of ADHD in Women,” Female Patient, volume 29, pp. 29–34, November 2004. 並參見Julia Rucklidge, “Gender Differences in Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder,” Psychiatric Clinics of North America, volume 33, pp. 357–373, 2010.

[21] Leonard Sax, “The Feminization of American Culture: How Modern Chemicals May Be Changing American Biology,” The World & I, pp. 243–261, October 2001.

第五章　第四個因素：內分泌幹擾物質

[1] David Fahrenthold, “Male Bass Across Region Found to Be Bearing Eggs: Pollution Concerns Arise in Drinking-Water Source,” Washington Post, September 6, 2006, pp. A1, A8.

[2] Fahrenthold, “Male Bass Across Region Found to Be Bearing Eggs.”

[3] 請看Blazer博士和Jo Ellen Hinck還有其他人合著的「一九九五─二○○四年間美國河流中廣泛發生的黑鱸魚雙性交配」（Widespread Occurrence of Intersex in Black Basses (Micropterus species) from US Rivers, 1995–2004）刊登在二○○九年的Aquatic Toxicology期刊，九五卷六○─七○頁。若想知道波多馬克河最新的資料，請見Blazer博士和他同事合著的「波多馬克河谷小口黑鱸繁殖內分泌的幹擾：生物效應的時間和空間比較」（Reproductive Endocrine Disruption in Smallmouth Bass (Micropterus dolomieu) in the Potomac River Basin: Spatial and Temporal Comparisons of Biological Effects）刊登在二○一二年Environmental Monitoring and Assessment期刊，一八四卷四三○九─四三三四頁，這些學者注意到雙性交配和工廠汙水、農業以及其他人造殺蟲劑和化學物品的逕流有很強的關聯，不過使這些雄魚雌性化的化學分子現在還不清楚。

[4] Laura Sessions Stepp, “Cupid's Broken Arrow: Performance Anxiety and Substance Abuse Figure into the Increase in Reports of Impotence on Campus,” Washington Post, May 7, 2006.

[5] 引自Dr. Brodie and Dr. Pryor both come from Stepp, “Cupid's Broken Arrow,” 同前。

[6] 跟野生動物因殺蟲劑所導致的雌性化議題可參考Heinz-R. Köhler和Rita Triebskorn合著的「殺蟲劑對野生動物生態毒理學，我們可以把這效果追蹤到群體的程度和之外嗎？」（Wildlife Ecotoxicology of Pesticides: Can We Track Effects to the Population Level and Beyond）發表在《科學》期刊三四一卷七五九─七六五頁，下面是我所引用的幾個二○一三年的特別案例：
• 華盛頓州和愛達荷州：James Nagler和他的同事檢查華盛頓州和愛達荷州哥倫比亞河流域，發現許多看起來像雌魚的魚，撈起來做ＤＮＡ檢驗時發現其實是雄魚。這些魚已經完全雌性化了。牠們看起來像雌性，牠們產卵而不產精子，但是牠們在基因上是雄性，參見James Nagler and colleagues, “High Incidence of a Male-Specific Genetic Marker in Phenotypic Female Chinook Salmon from the Columbia River,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 109, pp. 67–69, 2001.
• 佛羅裡達州：美國漁業與野生動物管理署的Louis Guillette和他的同事發現佛羅裡達州中部雄性鱷魚的睪丸萎縮。這些鱷魚血液中的雄性荷爾蒙也異常的少，但是雌性荷爾蒙卻不正常的高。同樣的，在阿波卜卡湖附近，離奧蘭多市不遠的野生動物保護區中的雄性蟒蛇快要絕種了，一部分原因是這些雄蟒蛇已不能再製造精子了。這個雄蟒蛇的去男性化和水池裡塑膠中含的鄰苯二甲酸鹽與丙二酚有關。參見Louis J. Guillette Jr. and colleagues, “Developmental Abnormalities of the Gonad and Abnormal Sex Hormone Concentrations in Juvenile Alligators from Contaminated and Control Lakes in Florida,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 102, pp. 680–688, 1994. 並參見Charles F. Facemire, Timothy S. Gross, and Louis J. Guillette Jr., “Reproductive Impairment in the Florida Panther,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 103, Supplement 4, pp. 79–86, 1995.
• 五大湖區: Theo Colborn, Frederick vom Saal, and Ana Soto, “Developmental Effects of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals in Wildlife and Humans,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 101, pp. 378–384, 1993.
• 阿拉斯加：Kurunthachalam Kannan, Se Hun Yun, and Thomas J. Evans, “Chlorinated, Brominated, and Perfluorinated Contaminants in Livers of Polar Bears from Alaska,” Environmental Science and Technology, volume 39, pp. 9057–9063, 2005.
• 英國：Susan Jobling和她的同事合著「野外魚類廣泛的性別幹擾現象」（Widespread Sexual Disruption in Wild Fish）刊登在一九九八年的Environmental Science and Technology三二卷二四九八─二五○六頁。
• 格稜蘭：Christian Sonne和同事合著的「內分泌幹擾物可能會降低東格稜蘭北極熊的性器官大小」（Xenoendocrine Pollutants May Reduce Size of Sexual Organs in East Greenland Polar Bears (Ursus maritimus)）刊登在二○○六年Environmental Science and Technology四○卷，五六六八─五六七四頁。

[7] Carmen Saenz de Rodriguez, Alfred Bongiovanni, and Lillian Conde de Borrego, “An Epidemic of Precocious Development in Puerto Rican Children,” Journal of Pediatrics, volume 107, pp. 393–396, 1985.

[8] Lambertina Freni-Titulaer and colleagues, “Premature Thelarche in Puerto Rico: A Search for Environmental Factors,” Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine (now known as JAMA Pediatrics), volume 140, pp. 1263–1267, 1986.

[9] 參見Guillette and colleagues, “Developmental Abnormalities of the Gonad and Abnormal Sex Hormone Concentrations,” 同前. 並參見Charles F. Facemire and colleagues, “Reproductive Impairment in the Florida Panther,” 同前。

[10] 聚對苯二甲酸乙二酯（PET）在化學上與聚乙烯不一樣，然而，一個由PET所製造的瓶子可能會使聚乙烯滲進瓶中的飲料內，在二○一○年我就喚起學者對此的注意，請看我的論文「聚對苯二甲酸乙二酯可能會造成內分泌失調」（Polyethylene Terephthalate May Yield Endocrine Disruptors）刊登在二○一○年的Environmental Health Perspectives一一八卷四四五─四四八頁，整篇論文在www.leonardsax.com/pet.pdf，我的文章引發Ralph Vasami寄給編輯一封憤怒的信。這個人是PET Resin Association，代表PET製造商的團體的執行幹事，他的信和我的回答都以「PET和內分泌失調」為題目，都刊登在二○一○年的Environmental Health Perspectives一一八卷A一九六─A一九七頁。你也可以在網上看Vasami先生的信和我的回答： www.leonardsax.com/wordpress/wp -content/uploads/2015/01/PET-response.pdf，也請參考Chun Yang和同事的「大部分的塑膠產品會釋出雌激素化學：一個可以被解決的潛在健康問題」（Most Plastic Products Release Estrogenic Chemicals: A Potential Health Problem That Can Be Solved）刊登在二○一一年Environmental Health Perspectives一一九卷九八九─九九六頁；Martin Wagner和Jörg Oehlmann的「瓶裝礦泉水的內分泌幹擾物：E-screen中的雌激素活動」（Endocrine Disruptors in Bottled Mineral Water: Estrogenic Activity in the E-screen）刊登在二○一一年Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology一二七卷一二八─一三五頁。以及Syam Andra和同事合著的「瓶裝水所共同滲出的溴化物和銻」（Co-leaching of Brominated Compounds and Antimony from Bottled Water）刊登在二○一二年Environment International三八卷四五─五三頁。

[11] Ivelisse Colon and colleagues, “Identification of Phthalate Esters in the Serum of Young Puerto Rican Girls with Premature Breast Development,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 108, pp. 895–900, 2000.

[12] Danielle Bodicoat and colleagues, “Timing of Pubertal Stages and Breast Cancer Risk: The Breakthrough Generations Study,” Breast Cancer Research, volume 16, 2014, online at www.breast-cancer-research.com/content/16/1/R18.

[13] Paul Kaplowitz and Sharon Oberfield, “Reexamination of the Age Limit for Defining When Puberty Is Precocious in Girls in the United States: Implications for Evaluation and Treatment,” Pediatrics, volume 104, pp. 936–941, 1999.

[14] 例如參見Jonathan Roy and colleagues, “Estrogen-like Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals Affecting Puberty in Humans─A Review,” Medical Science Review, volume 15, pp. 137–145, 2009. See also Samim Ozen and Sukran Darcan, “Effects of Environmental Endocrine Disruptors on Pubertal Development,” Journal of Clinical Research in Pediatric Endocrinology, volume 3, pp. 1–6, 2011.

[15] Sandra Steingraber, The Falling Age of Puberty in U.S. Girls: What We Know, What We Need to Know (San Francisco: Breast Cancer Fund, 2007).

[16] 關於安殺番這個殺蟲劑對青少年的影響，請看Kate Ramsayer的「青春期變慢？殺蟲劑可能延緩了男孩的發展」（Slowing puberty? Pesticide may hinder development in boys）刊登在《科學新聞》（Science News）二○○三年一六四卷三七二頁。這篇報導是根據Habibullah Saiyed和同事合著的「安殺番在男性生殖發展上的效應」（Effect of endosulfan on male reproductive development）的論文所寫成，原文刊登在二○○三年的Environmental Health Perspectives第一一一卷一九五八─一九六二頁。也請看R. Sebastian和S. C. Raghavan合著的「暴露在安殺番下會因睪丸萎縮精子數量減少而造成男性不孕症」（Exposure to endosulfan can result in male infertility due to testicular atrophy and reduced sperm count）刊登在二○一五年的Cell Death Discovery，全篇論文可在網上http://www.nature.com /articles/cddiscovery201520找到關於安殺番的製造，根據美國環保署（EPA）二○○二年的報告，美國每天用安殺番的量是一百三十八萬磅，用的最多的是棉花、哈密瓜、蕃茄和馬鈴薯，這些數字來自安殺番重新登記決定報告的第一頁，二○○二年十一月EPA公佈，全份報告在網站http://archive.epa.gov/pesticides/reregistration/web /pdf/endosulfan_red.pdf。

[17] 請看Marla Cone的文章「環保署禁用在小黃瓜和其他蔬菜上的農藥」（EPA Bans Pesticide Found on Cu- cumbers and Other Vegetables）最初發表在二○一○年六月十四日的Daily Green，當Daily Green被Good Housekeeping雜誌在二○一三年買去後，大部分原來刊登在Daily Green的文章被刪除了，所以在它的新家網站上找不到了，我找到Marla Cone的文章是在www.highstrangeness. tv/0–10346-epa-bans-pesticide-found-on-cucumbers-and-other -vegetables.html（二○一五年十月十日仍可找到）。

[18] Dale Kemery, “EPA Moves to Terminate All Uses of Insecticide Endosulfan to Protect Health of Farmworkers and Wildlife,” June 9, 2010, online at US Environmental Protection Agency, http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/eeffe922a687433c85257359003f5340/44c035d59d5e6d8f8525773c0072f26b!opendocument.

[19] 我第一次看到這個研究是在「食器中所用的化學物質會傷害大腦發育」（Chemical Used in Food Containers Disrupts Brain Development），二○○五年十二月三日的Science Daily雜誌，這篇文章是根據Dr. Scott Belcher和他同事合著的一篇論文而來：(1)「老鼠小腦皮質上，雌激素所導致的快速細胞間激酶訊號來源：環境雌激素雙酚A對非基因活化劑和內分泌的幹擾活動」（Ontogeny of Rapid Estrogen-Mediated Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase Signaling in the Rat Cerebellar Cortex: Potent Nongenomic Agonist and Endocrine Disrupting Activity of the Xenoestrogen Bisphenol A）刊登在二○○五年《內分泌學》（Endocrinology）一四六卷五三八八─五三九六頁。(2)「小腦顆粒細胞跟G蛋白質和蛋白激酶機制和細胞間蛋白質監酸酶2A活化的快速細胞間激酶訊號調控雌激素」（Rapid Estrogenic Regulation of Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase 1/2 Signaling in Cerebellar Granule Cells Involves a G Protein- and Protein Kinase A-dependent Mechanism and Intracellular Activation of Protein Phosphatase 2A）二○○五年《內分泌學》一四六卷五三九七─五四○六頁。

[20] Walter Adriani and colleagues, “Altered Profiles of Spontaneous Novelty Seeking, Impulsive Behavior, and Response to D-Amphetamine in Rats Perinatally Exposed to Bisphenol A,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 111, pp. 395–401, 2003.

[21] Yoshinori Masuo and Masami Ishido, “Neurotoxicity of Endocrine Disruptors: Possible Involvement in Brain Development and Neurodegeneration,” Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, volume 14, pp. 346–369, 2011.

[22] Paola Palanza and colleagues, “Effects of Developmental Exposure to Bisphenol A on Brain and Behavior in Mice,” Environmental Research, volume 108, pp. 150–157, 2008.

[23] For a review, see Beverly Rubin’s article “Bisphenol A: An Endocrine Disruptor with Widespread Exposure and Multiple Effects,” Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, volume 127, pp. 27–34, 2011.

[24] George Bittner and colleagues, “Estrogenic Chemicals Often Leach from BPA-Free Plastic Products That Are Replacements for BPA-Containing Polycarbonate Products,” Environmental Health, May 28, 2014, online at www.ehjournal.net/content/13/1/41. See also Chun Yang and colleagues, “Most Plastic Products Release Estrogenic Chemicals,” cited above.

[25] John Meeker, “Exposure to Environmental Endocrine Disruptors and Child Development,” JAMA Pediatrics, volume 166, pp. 952–958, 2012. The estimate of 84,000 chemicals comes from this article.

[26] 這句話來自Philippe Grandjean和Philip Landrigan合著的「發展中毒性的神經行為效應」（Neurobehavioural Effects of Developmental Toxicity），二○一四年發表在Lancet Neurology一三卷三三○─三三八頁。

[27] Yoshinori Masuo and colleagues, “Motor Hyperactivity Caused by a Deficit in Dopaminergic Neurons and the Effects of Endocrine Disruptors: A Study Inspired by the Physiological Roles of PACAP in the Brain,” Regulatory Peptides, volume 123, pp. 225–234, 2004. See also Masami Ishido and colleagues, “Dicyclohexylphthalate Causes Hyperactivity in the Rat Concomitantly with Impairment of Tyrosine Hydroxylase Immunoreactivity,” Journal of Neurochemistry, volume 91, pp. 69–76, 2004.

[28] Bung-Nyun Kim and colleagues, “Phthalates Exposure and Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder in School-Age Children,” Biological Psychiatry, volume 66, pp. 958–963, 2009.

[29] Stephanie Engel and colleagues, “Prenatal Phthalate Exposure Is Associated with Childhood Behavior and Executive Functioning,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 118, pp. 565–571, 2010. See also Amir Miodovnik and colleagues, “Endocrine Disruptors and Childhood Social Impairment,” Neurotoxicology, volume 32, pp. 261–267, 2011.

[30] 我在我的書《棉花糖女孩》的第四章有談到暴露在會干擾內分泌的物質之下，和後來乳癌風險之間的關係，對於幹擾內分泌和前列腺癌之間的關係，請看Gail Prins所著「內分泌幹擾物和前列腺癌的風險」（Endocrine Disruptors and Prostate Cancer Risk）二○○八年Endocrine-Related Cancer一五卷六四九─六五六頁。關於內分泌幹擾物可能引起睪丸癌的證據，請看Fabrizio Giannandrea和同事合著之「睪丸癌之內生和外生的荷爾蒙效應：流行病學上的證據」（Effect of Endogenous and Exogenous Hormones on Testicular Cancer: The Epidemiological Evidence）刊登在二○一三年International Journal of Developmental Biology五七卷二五五─二六三頁。對於假如目前這個趨勢繼續下去會怎樣的警告，請看Charlotte Le Cornet和同事所著之「二○二五年歐洲的睪丸癌會上升25%？：用四十個國家人口註冊數據所預測的模式」（Testicular Cancer Incidence to Rise by 25% by 2025 in Europe? Model-Based Predictions in 40 Countries Using Population-Based Registry Data）刊登在二○一四年European Journal of Cancer五○卷八三一─八三九頁。

[31] Laura Vandenberg and colleagues, “Hormones and Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals: Low-Dose Effects and Nonmonotonic Dose Responses,” Endocrine Reviews, volume 33, pp. 378–455, 2012. See also Frederick vom Saal and Claude Hughes, “An Extensive New Literature Concerning Low-Dose Effects of Bisphenol A Shows the Need for a New Risk Assessment,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 113, pp. 926–933, 2005.

[32] 數據出自Cheryl Fryar and colleagues, “Prevalence of Obesity Among Children and Adolescents: United States, Trends 1963–1965 Through 2009–2010,” published September 13, 2012, by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, full text online at www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/obesity_child_09_10/obesity_child_09_10.htm.

[33] Yann Klimentidis and colleagues, “Canaries in the Coal Mine: A Cross-Species Analysis of the Plurality of Obesity Epidemics,” Proceedings of the Royal Society, volume 278, pp. 1626–1632, 2011.

[34] Jill Schneider and colleagues, “Our Stolen Figures: The Interface of Sexual Differentiation, Endocrine Disruptors, Maternal Programming, and Energy Balance,” Hormones and Behavior, volume 66, pp.104–119, 2014. See also Shane Regnier and Robert Sargis, “Adipocytes Under Assault: Environmental Disruption of Adipocyte Physiology,” Biochimica et Biophysica Acta─Molecular Basis of Disease, volume 1842, pp. 520–533, 2014.

[35] Nathaniel Mead, “Origins of Obesity: Chemical Exposures,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 112, p. A344, 2004.

[36] 所引用文句來自米德「Origins of Obesity」這個發現的學術論文，請見Frederick vom Saal的「幹擾雌激素的化學雙酚A (BPA)和肥胖症」（The Estrogenic Endocrine Disrupting Chemical Bisphenol A (BPA) and Obesity），二○一二年發表於Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology三五四卷，七四─八四頁。

[37] Ines Sedlmeyer and Mark Palmert, “Delayed Puberty: Analysis of a Large Case Series from an Academic Center,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, volume 87, pp. 1613–1620, 2002.

[38] Antony Johansen and colleagues, “Fracture Incidence in England and Wales: A Study Based on the Population of Cardiff ,” Injury, volume 28, pp. 655–660, 1997.

[39] A. Gulati and colleagues, “Pediatric Fractures: Temporal Trends and Cost Implications of Treatment Under General Anesthesia,” European Journal of Trauma and Emergency Surgery, volume 38, pp. 59–64, 2012.

[40] Juha-Jaakko Sinikumpu, Forearm Shaft Fractures in Children (Oulu, Finland: Oulu University Hospital, 2013), full text online at http://herkules.oulu.fi/isbn9789526203003/isbn9789526203003.pdf. A condensed version of this report was published under the title “The Changing Pattern of Pediatric Both-Bone Forearm Shaft Fractures Among 86,000 Children from 1997 to 2009,” European Journal of Pediatric Surgery, volume 23, pp. 289–296, 2013. See also C. E. de Putter and colleagues, “Trends in Wrist Fractures in Children and Adolescents, 1997–2009,” Journal of Hand Surgery, volume 36, pp. 1810–1815, 2011.

[41] 關於過去四十年，從牛奶轉到汽水的文獻，請看我的書《教養，你可以做得更好》（遠流出版）第二章，關於可樂飲料如何影響孩子骨頭的礦物質，請看我在Victor Preedy編輯的Annual Reviews in Food & Nutrition書中第二章「飲食的磷酸化是營養的毒：對年齡和性別的影響」（Dietary Phosphorus as a Nutritional Toxin: The Influence of Age and Sex）一五八─一六八頁（二○○三年倫敦Taylor和Francis出版）。

[42] E. M. Clark and colleagues, “Adipose Tissue Stimulates Bone Growth in Prepubertal Children,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, volume 91, pp. 2534–2541, 2006.

[43] Dimitrios Agas and colleagues, “Endocrine Disruptors and Bone Metabolism,” Archives of Toxicology, volume 87, pp. 735–751, 2013.

[44] 參見Mari Golub and colleagues, “Endocrine Disruption in Adolescence: Immunologic, Hematologic, and Bone Effects in Monkeys,” Toxicological Sciences, volume 82, pp. 598–607, 2004; Monica Lind and colleagues, “Abnormal Bone Composition in Female Juvenile American Alligators from a Pesticide-Polluted Lake (Lake Apopka, Florida),” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 112, pp. 359–362, 2004; and Christian Sonne and colleagues, “Is Bone Mineral Composition Disrupted by Organochlorines in East Greenland Polar Bears (Ursus maritimus)?” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 112, pp. 1711–1716, 2004.

[45] 在《棉花糖女孩》（遠流出版）的第五章中，我談到人類兒童與猴子在遊戲行為上的研究，男生和雄猴都偏好玩一個灰色有輪子的卡車而不喜歡鮮豔顏色但沒有輪子的洋娃娃，請看Janice Hassett、Erin Siebert和Kim Wallen合著的「恆河猴在玩具的偏好上跟人類的性別差異一樣」（Sex Differences in Rhesus Monkey Toy Preferences Parallel Those of Children）刊登在二○○八年的Hormones and Behavior五四卷，三五九─三六四頁。其他在黑猩猩的研究上也得到同樣的結果，請見Sonya Kahlenberg和Richard Wrangham合著之「黑猩猩在用樹枝作玩具跟人類兒童的性別差異一樣」（Sex Differences in Chimpanzees’ Use of Sticks as Play Objects Resemble Those of Children）刊登在二○一○年Current Biology二○卷，一○六七─一○六八頁。

[46] A. K. Hotchkiss and colleagues, “Androgens and Environmental Antiandrogens Affect Reproductive Development and Play Behavior in the Sprague-Dawley Rat,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 110, Supplement 3, pp. 435–439, 2002.

[47] 參見Beverly Rubin and colleagues, “Evidence of Altered Brain Sexual Differentiation in Mice Exposed Perinatally to Low, Environmentally Relevant Levels of Bisphenol A,” Endocrinology, volume 147, pp. 3681–3691, 2006; and Frederick vom Saal, “Bisphenol A Eliminates Brain and Behavior Sex Dimorphisms in Mice: How Low Can You Go?” Endocrinology, volume 147, pp. 3679–3680, 2006.

[48] 例如參見Ernie Hood’s essay, “Are EDCs Blurring Issues of Gender?” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 113, pp. A670–A677, 2005.

[49] Leonard Paulozzi「尿道下裂和隱睪症的國際趨勢」（International Trends in Rates of Hypospadias and Cryptorchidism）刊登在一九九九年的Environmental Health Perspectives一○七卷二九七─三○二頁。Paulozzi的數據只到九○年代，最近的數據顯示這兩種缺陷的趨勢持續上升，請看二○一二年的「International Clearinghouse for Birth Defects Surveillance and Research Annual Report」，它可見網站www.icbdsr.org/filebank/documents/ar2005 /Report2012.pdf，根據這個報告，一九七四─一九八○年，亞特蘭大市嬰兒的尿道下裂和隱睪症上升了五倍（二三五頁），請見C. L. Acerini和同事合著之「英國嬰兒研究：先天和後天尿道下裂、隱睪症的描述性流行病學」（The Descriptive Epidemiology of Congenital and Acquired Cryptorchidism in a UK Infant Cohort），刊登在二○○九年Archives of Diseases in Childhood九四卷八六八─八七二頁。這些研究者記錄這個他們稱之為「上升的睪丸」的現象，這個現象又稱之為後天的隱睪症，嬰兒出生時是正常的下降睪丸，但是後來一個或兩個睪丸縮回到腹股溝管去了。

[50] Thomas Travison和同事合著之「美國男士血清中睪固酮濃度下降」（A Population-Level Decline in Serum Testosterone Levels in American Men）刊登在二○○七年Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism九二卷一九六─二○二頁。在歐洲也偵察到同樣的濃度下降，見Anna-Maria Andersson和同事合著之「丹麥人口調查男性睪固酮和結合血清球蛋白的性荷爾蒙濃度長期的下降」（Secular Decline in Male Testosterone and Sex Hormone Binding Globulin Serum Levels in Danish Population Surveys）刊登在二○○七Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism九二卷四六九六─四七○五頁。

[51] 例如參見Tina Lassen and colleagues, “Trends in Male Reproductive Health and Decreasing Fertility: Possible Influence of Endocrine Disruptors,” International Studies in Population, volume 11, pp. 117–135, 2014. See also Julia Barrett, “Fertile Grounds for Inquiry: Environmental Effects on Human Reproduction,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 114, pp. A644–A649, 2006.

[52] Nils Skakkebak, E. Rajpert-De Meyts, and Katharina Main, “Testicular Dysgenesis Syndrome: An Increasingly Common Developmental Disorder with Environmental Aspects,” Human Reproduction, volume 16, pp. 972–978, 2001. The quotations are from p. 977.

[53] Shanna H. Swan和同事合著之「懷孕期間暴露在磷苯二甲酸酯之男嬰肛門性器間距離」（Decrease in Anogenital Distance Among Male Infants with Prenatal Phthalate Exposure）刊登二○○五年的Environmental Health Perspectives一一三卷一○五六─一○六一頁。關於最近的數據請看Swan博士的論文（與六人合著）「懷孕第一期暴露在磷苯二甲酸酯新生兒的肛門性器間距離」（First Trimester Phthalate Exposure and Anogenital Distance in Newborns）刊登在二○一五年Human Reproduction三○卷，九六三─九七二頁。

[54] 史萬醫生寫給我的e-mail, February 7, 2007.

[55] 請看Norman Barlow和同事合著之「在子宮中暴露在磷苯二甲酸二丁酯的男性生殖器官傷害，在六個月、十二個月和十八個月的情形」（Male Reproductive Tract Lesions at Six, Twelve, and Eighteen Months of Age Following In Utero Exposure to Di(n-butyl) Phthalate）刊登在二○○四年的Toxicology and Pathology三二卷七九─九○頁。以及Makato Ema和Emiko Miyawaki合著的「老鼠懷孕後期服用磷苯二甲酸二丁酯，一個磷苯二甲酸二丁酯的代謝物對男性下一代生殖系統發育的不利作用」（Adverse Effects on Development of the Reproductive System in Male Offspring of Rats Given Monobutyl Phthalate, a Metabolite of Dibutyl Phthalate, During Late Pregnancy）刊登在二○○一年的Reproductive Toxicology一五卷，一八九─一九四頁。

[56] Shanna Swan, E. P. Elkin, and L. Fenster, “The Question of Declining Sperm Density Revisited: An Analysis of 101 Studies Published 1934–1996,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 108, pp. 961–966, 2000.

[57] 請看Loa Nordkap和同事合著的「男性生殖健康的區域差異和時間趨勢：精蟲質量可能是環境暴露的敏感指標」（Regional Differences and Temporal Trends in Male Reproductive Health Disorders: Semen Quality May Be a Sensitive Marker of Environmental Exposures）刊登在二○一二年Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology三五五卷，二二一─二三○頁。M. Rolland和同事合著的「法國一九八九年到二○○五年26,609名男士精液中精蟲濃度和精蟲形態的下降」（Decline in Semen Concentration and Morphology in a Sample of 26,609 Men Close to General Population Between 1989 and 2005 in France）刊登在二○一三年的Human Reproduction二八卷，四六二─四七○頁。Jaime Mendiola的「南西班牙大學生精蟲數量可能下降」（Sperm Counts May Have Declined in Young University Students in Southern Spain）刊登在二○一三年的Andrology第一卷，四○八─四一三頁。Helena Virtanen和同事合著的「芬蘭追隨著趨勢──芬蘭男性的精子質量」（Finland Is Following the Trend─Sperm Quality in Finnish Men）刊登在二○一三年Asian Journal of Andrology一五卷一六二─一六四頁。Edson Borges等人合著的「過去十年來巴西不孕症男子精蟲質量的下降」（Decline in Semen Quality Among Infertile Men in Brazil During the Past 10 Years）刊登在二○一五年International Brazilian Journal of Urology四一卷七五七─七六三頁。這個效應不只是在發展的國家中人民身上重複得到印證，同時在牛群身上也有發現，請見Tomaz Snoj等人合著之「公牛精子質量反思研究－跟所用的殺蟲劑有相關嗎？」（Retrospective Study of Bull Semen Quality─Possible Correlation with Pesticide Use?）刊登在二○一三年的Acta Veterinaria Hungarica六一卷四九五─五○四頁。

[58] Shanna Swan and colleagues, “Geographic Differences in Semen Quality of Fertile U.S. Males,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 111, pp. 414–420, 2003. For a more recent review, see Sheena Martenies and Melissa Perry, “Environmental and Occupational Pesticide Exposure and Human Sperm Parameters: A Systematic Review,” Toxicology, volume 307, pp. 66–73, 2013.

[59] Susan Duty and colleagues, “Phthalate Exposure and Human Semen Parameters,” Epidemiology, volume 14, pp. 269–277, 2003. See also Richard Grady and Sheela Sathyanarayana, “An Update on Phthalates and Male Reproductive Development and Function,” Pediatric Urology, volume 13, pp. 307–310, 2012. There is also evidence that exposure to phthalates decreases male hormone levels. See, for example, John Meeker and Kelly Ferguson, “Urinary Phthalate Metabolites Are Associated with Decreased Serum Testosterone in Men, Women, and Children from NHANES 2011–2012,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, volume 99, pp. 4346–4352, 2014; and Jaime Mendiola and colleagues, “Urinary Concentrations of Di(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate Metabolites and Serum Reproductive Hormones: Pooled Analysis of Fertile and Infertile Men,” Journal of Andrology, volume 33, pp. 488–498, 2012.

[60] Jane Fisher, “Environmental Anti-Androgens and Male Reproductive Health: Focus on Phthalates and Testicular Dysgenesis Syndrome,” Reproduction, volume 127, pp. 305–315, 2004. See also Lise Aksglaede and colleagues, “The Sensitivity of the Child to Sex Steroids: Possible Impact of Exogenous Estrogens,” Human Reproduction Update, volume 12, pp. 341–349, 2006.

[61] 這一段綜合了很多研究的結果，過去三十年來，有一百多個研究都發現睪固酮和人類缺乏驅力動機有相關。以下是一些具代表性的研究，按年代排序：
• Alan Booth and colleagues, “Testosterone and Winning and Losing in Human Competition,” Hormones and Behavior, volume 23, pp. 556–571, 1989.
• B. Gladue, M. Boechler, and K. McCaul, “Hormonal Response to Competition in Human Males,” Aggressive Behavior, volume 15, pp. 409–422, 1989.
• K. D. McCaul, B. Gladue, and M. Joppa, “Winning, Losing, Mood, and Testosterone,” Hormones and Behavior, volume 26, pp. 486–504, 1992.
• A. Mazur, E. J. Susman, and S. Edelbrock, “Sex Differences in Testosterone Response to a Video Game Contest,” Evolution and Human Behavior, volume 18, pp. 317–326, 1997.
• A. Mazur and Alan Booth, “Testosterone and Dominance in Men,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences, volume 21, pp. 353–363, 1998.
• E. Cashdan, “Are Men More Competitive Than Women?” British Journal of Social Psychology, volume 34, pp. 213–229, 1998.
• David Geary and M. V. Flinn, “Sex Differences in Behavioral and Hormonal Response to Social Threat,” Psychological Review, volume 109, pp. 745–750, 2002.
• H. S. Bateup and colleagues, “Testosterone, Cortisol, and Women's Competition,” Evolution and Human Behavior, volume 23, pp. 181–192, 2002.
• Katie Kivlighan, Douglas Granger, and Alan Booth, “Gender Diff erences in Testosterone and Cortisol Response to Competition,” Psychoneuroendocrinology, volume 30, pp. 58–71, 2005.
• Goncalo Oliveira and colleagues, “Testosterone Response to Competition in Males Is Unrelated to Opponent Familiarity or Threat Appraisal,” Frontiers in Psychology, volume 5, article 1240, pp. 1–7, 2014.

[62] 這些建議有一部分來自Dr. Swan的文章「父母親不需要等到政府立法才來保護孩子不受有毒產品的傷害」（Parents Needn't Wait for Legislation to Shield Kids from Toxins in Products），二○○六年一月九日San Francisco Chronicle報。

第六章　結果：賴家王老五

[1] 我很感謝Walt Prichard提供這則軼聞──他堅信這是個真實的故事。

[2] 我在二○○五年八月的美國心理學會（APA）年會中，主持了一個討論會，題目是聽覺、視覺和嗅覺的性別差異，在我的討論會中報告的有費城Monell 化學中心的Pamela Dalton博士。Dalton博士做了很多嗅覺研究，發現女性的嗅覺比男性好了十萬倍，她和同事發表了兩篇這方面的論文「特定性別差異導致的嗅覺敏感度」（Gender-Specific Induction of Enhanced Sensitivity to Odors）刊登在二○○二年三月的Nature Neuroscience五卷，一九九─二○○頁。以及Jeanmarie Diamond、Pamela Dalton等人合著的「性別特定的嗅覺敏感度：荷爾蒙和認知的影響」（Gender-Specific Olfactory Sensitization: Hormonal and Cognitive Influences）刊登在二○○五年的Chemical Senses三○卷附件一，二二四─二二五頁。最近有更多的研究提供證據嗅腦中性別的差異是先天設定的，例如Ana Oliveira-Pinto等人合著的「人類嗅腦的性別差異：女性比男性有著更多的神經元和膠質細胞」（Sexual Dimorphism in the Human Olfactory Bulb: Females Have More Neurons and Glial Cells Than Males）刊登在二○一四年PLOS One的十一月號，也可見網路http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371 /journal.pone.0111733下載。

[3] Charles Murray的「職業學校怎麼了？」（What's Wrong with Vocational School?），刊載於二○○七年一月十七日的《華爾街日報》（Wall Street Journal）。

[4] 這一段所有的引句來自Murray「職業學校怎麼了？」（What's Wrong with Vocational School?）。

[5] 克萊費爾教授寫給我的E-mail, January 19, 2007.

[6] 此一分析出自“The State of American Manhood,” by Tom Mortenson, writing for the September 2006 edition of Postsecondary Education Opportunity, www.postsecondary.org.

[7] Louis Uchitelle, David Leonhardt, and Amanda Cox, “Men Not Working, and Not Wanting Just Any Job,” New York Times, July 31, 2006, pp. A1, A18, A19.

[8] Steven Hipple, “People Who Are Not in the Labor Force: Why Aren’t They Working?” Bureau of Labor Statistics, Beyond the Numbers, volume 4, number 15, December 2015, Table 2, “Men Aged 25 to 54 Years Who Did Not Work or Look for Work in 2004 and 2014,” www.bls.gov/opub/btn/volume-4/pdf/people-who-are-not-in-the-labor-force-why-arent-they-working.pdf.

[9] Laura Sessions Stepp, Unhooked: How Young Women Pursue Sex, Delay Love and Lose at Both (New York: Riverhead/Penguin, 2007), p. 9. Stepp hired an independent research group, Child Trends, to conduct this study, www.childtrends.org.

[10] 到二○一五年十一月為止，美國人口調查局最新的報告是Jonathan Vespa等人合著的「二○一二年美國的家庭和生活方式」（America's Families and Living Arrangements: 2012）發表在二○一三年的該局報告中，可以在網站上下載：www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/p20 -570.pdf，這些數字來自這篇文章的前言。

[11] 這些圖片來自「單身漢的大型調查」（Share of Men Never Married, by Cohort），出自Wendy Wang和Kim Parker發表於二○一四年九月二十四日的報告「Pew Report Record Share of Americans Have Never Married」，可從網站www.pewsocialtrends.org/2014/09/24 /record-share-of-americans-have-never-married下載。

[12] 這一段所有的引用句來自Blaine Harden的文章「結婚有孩子的人數下降」（Numbers Drop for the Married with Children），二○○七年三月四日《華盛頓郵報》。

[13] Eduardo Porter and Michelle O'Donnell, “Facing Middle Age with No Degree, and No Wife,” New York Times, August 6, 2006, p. A18.

[14] US Census Bureau, Families and Living Arrangements, “Living Arrangements of Adults,” Table AD-1, “Young Adults Living at Home,” www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/adults.html, accessed October 19, 2015.

[15] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, “Data Brief 162: Recent Declines in Nonmarital Childbearing in the United States. Data Table for Figure 1: Number, Percentage, and Rate of Births to Unmarried Women: United States, 1940–2013,” online at www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db162_table.pdf, accessed October 23, 2015.

[16] Sam Roberts and colleagues, “51 Percent of Women Are Now Living Without Spouse,” New York Times, January 16, 2007.

[17] US Census, “Families and Living Arrangements: Living Arrangements of Adults,” Table UC-1, “Unmarried Couples of the Opposite Sex,” www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/adults.html, accessed January 6, 2016.

[18] Cynthia Robbins and colleagues, “Prevalence, Frequency, and Associations of Masturbation with Partnered Sexual Behaviors Among US Adolescents,” JAMA Pediatrics, volume 165, pp. 1087–1093, 2011.

[19] 請見Jennifer Schneider的「網路性行為者的質的研究：性別差異恢復議題和治療師的意義」（A Qualitative Study of Cybersex Participants: Gender Differences, Recovery Issues, and Implications for Therapists）刊登在二○○○年的Sexual Addiction and Compulsivity七卷，二四九─二七八頁。Schneider發現很多男性發現可以在網際網路上虛擬性交後，經驗過持續升高性慾和快感的強迫性網交。

[20] Martin Kafk a and John Hennen, “The Paraphilia-Related Disorders: An Empirical Investigation of Nonparaphilic Hypersexuality Disorders in Outpatient Males,” Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, volume 25, pp. 305–319, 1999.

[21] Najah S. Musacchio、Molly Hartrich和Robert Garofalo合著的「勃起障礙和威而鋼使用：大學男生是怎麼回事？」（Erectile Dysfunction and Viagra Use: What’s Up with College-Age Males?）刊登在二○○六年Journal of Adolescent Health期刊三九卷四五二─四五四頁。這些作者調查十八歲到二十五歲男生的性行為。這篇文章的摘要寫的很不清楚，令人迷惑，他們說「13%報告說有勃起困難……，25%報告說使用保險套有勃起困難」，但是在文本中，作者解釋二百三十四名男性中有二十九名報告有勃起困難，而五十八名報告在使用保險套時，有勃起困難：陰莖在戴保險套時變軟，二十個人是既有勃起困難也有戴保險套時勃起困難，所以總共有七十八名男性有勃起困難（不管有沒有用保險套），假如你做一點數學（七十八除以二三四），你得到0.333，即33.3%，三個裡面就有一個。

[22] Amado Bechara and colleagues, “Recreational Use of Phosphodiesterase Type 5 Inhibitors by Healthy Young Men,” Journal of Sexual Medicine, volume 7, pp. 3736–3742, 2010.

[23] 我在二○○六年三月三十一日寫了一篇文章「男孩子怎麼了？」（What's Happening to Boys?）登在《華盛頓郵報》上，我引用的e-mail不是直接對我文章的反應，而是後來《華盛頓郵報》辦了一場這個題目的座談會時，對那個座談會的反應。

[24] 這個專題是net.seXXX: Readings on Sex, Pornography, and the Internet, edited by Dennis Waskul (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2004). 引文來自Andreas Philaretou對此一專題的評論：Journal of Sex Research under the title “Sexuality and the Internet,” volume 42, pp. 180–181, 2005.

[25] Andreas Philaretou, “Sexuality and the Internet.”

[26] 例如參見Gail Gines, Pornland: How Porn Has Hijacked Our Sexuality (Boston: Beacon Press, 2011). See also Ariel Levy, Female Chauvinist Pigs: Women and the Rise of Raunch Culture (New York: Free Press, 2005).

[27] Erik Hedegaard, “The Dirty Mind and Lonely Heart of John Mayer,” Rolling Stone (cover story), February 4, 2010.

[28] You can read the full text of John Mayer's interview with Playboy (without the photos), at this link: http://dbeaumonte.com/2010/02/10/what-did-john-mayer-say-read-full-playboy-article-here.

[29] 所有的對話在www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion /2006/03/30/DI2006033001398.html。

[30] 這個節目的錄音（四十二分鐘），請看二○○六年四月四日WBUR電臺跟「Tom Ashbrook」節目「賴家王老五」（Failure to Launch），http://onpoint.wbur.org/2006/04/04/failure-to-launch。

[31] 例如參見“Mammoni: The ‘Mama's Boys’ of Italy,” CBS News, March 4, 2001, www.cbsnews.com/videos/mammoni-the-mamas-boys-of-italy.

[32] 關於hikikomori，可參見Michael Zielenziger的著作Shutting Out the Sun: How Japan Created Its Own Lost Generation (New York: Nan A. Talese, 2006).

第七章　第五個因素：被遺棄神祇的復仇

[1] 我很感謝我以前的病患Anders Eklof建議的這個副題。

[2] J. R. Moehringer, The Tender Bar (New York: Hyperion, 2005), p. 39.

[3] David Brooks, “Virtues and Victims,” New York Times, April 9, 2006.

[4] David Gilmore, Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990), pp. 14–15.

[5] Gilmore, Manhood in the Making, p. 25.

[6] Elisabeth Griffith, PhD, personal communication, November 6, 2003.

[7] Gary Leupp, Male Colors: The Construction of Homosexuality in Tokugawa Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).

[8] Thorkil Vanggaard, Phallos: A Symbol and Its History in the Male World (New York: International Universities Press, 1972). For more about the status of homosexuality among the Spartans and other ancient Greeks, see chapter 3 of Vanggaard's book, “Phallic Worship in Ancient Greece,” pp. 59–70.

[9] 事實上，記錄中有兩個文化打破了這個規矩：大溪地和馬來西亞的Semai文化，在這兩個文化中，勇敢的人並沒有比懦弱的人更受尊敬，努力工作的人也不被看好，Semai的文化沒有傳統的男性主義，沒有競爭，沒有私人擁有的土地，也沒有保護女人不受男人侵害的概念，Gilmore在他的《製造男人》（Manhood in the Making）一書中（二一二頁）說：「Semai文化沒有任何男性的榮耀或作為父親的光榮去激勵他們，Semai男人不抵抗，簡單地說，Semai男人不擔心榮譽、為人父或社交界線，」「他們的生活中沒有什麼性別差異，所有東西都共享，他們完全沒有『我的東西』的概念，我的、你的，對他們沒有意義。」（二一四頁）。假如你想研究Semai人，你得趕快，這個文化在以驚人的速度在消失中，雖然跟其他文化只有一點點的接觸，他們也完全沒有辦法存活在現在的社會裡。
第二個是大溪地的原住民文化，這個文化現在已經絕跡了，Gilmore說大溪地原住民文化可能是最沒有性別差異的社會文化，即使今天，大溪地語言中仍然沒有男人和女人的詞彙，在傳統大溪地文化中，成年人的角色幾乎完全沒有性別差異，大溪地男人和女人一起負擔養育孩子、煮飯、做家務的責任。
是什麼因素使大溪地發展出這種中性的文化？第一個原因很可能是資源豐富，Gilmore發現大溪地和它附近的島嶼幾乎不需要努力或風險就能拿到足夠的食物，而大部分的人類社區資源都是不足的。取之不盡，用之不絕的資源使得大溪地跟地球上其他地方不一樣，Gilmore在他二二四頁的結論中說：「環境越惡劣，資源越匱乏，成為男子漢大丈夫的壓力和動機越大」。
第二個因素是缺乏和其他文化交流，這點對Semai人也適用，Gilmore認為在人類其他社群中，「真正的男人」的主要功能是跟別的社區交涉：或是透過打戰臣服於人，或是透過交涉和平共處，大溪地人一直到歐洲人於一八○○年來殖民，他們沒有跟外界聯絡，自從傳教士在一八一五年到達大溪地後，在短短的六十年間，大溪地自己的文化在Pomare女王四世駕崩後，整個文化便消失了，「在一個世代之間，傳統的大溪地文化更徹底毀滅掉了」，Jean-Bernard Carillet在他的《大溪地和法國的波里尼西亞》（Tahiti and French Polynesia）一書（這本書二○○○年在澳洲墨爾本出版）一三頁中說，Semai文化除了在最遙遠的森林中，已經幾乎滅絕了。
這兩個文化都無法在跟外界接觸以後存活下來，即使一個世代的時間都不可能，這個快速的崩潰顯示一個文化要持久，它需要有「真正的男人」才能在跟別的文化接觸後還能存活下來，沒有性別差異的文化無法持久。

[10] 我指的是Kinaaldá儀式，對這個儀式的介紹，我推薦Monty Roessel的攝影文章「Kinaaldá：一個A Navajo女孩的成長」（Kinaaldá: A Navajo Girl Grows Up），裡面有些絕佳的圖片，此書在一九九三年由Minneapolis的Lerner公司出版。

[11] Peggy Drexler, Raising Boys Without Men: How Maverick Moms Are Creating the Next Generation of Exceptional Men (Emmaus, PA: Rodale, 2006), p. 92.

[12] 我的「吹牛的饒舌歌手或假裝是饒舌歌手」，但其實是判了罪的重刑犯是指Lil Wayne和Akon，Lil Wayne是攜帶武器的重刑犯，他使聽者想起他的歌是「Paint Tha Town」。但是至少Lil Wayne有誠實地說他的過去犯罪歷史，他其實有入監服刑，Akon又名Aliaume Thiam，是二十一世紀最成功的嘻哈藝術家，他有十首以上的歌銷售百萬張以上。他吹牛他是一個偷車集團背後的首腦，這個集團只偷保時捷和藍寶堅尼這種名貴車，宣稱曾為此入獄三年，從一九九九到二○○二年在喬治亞州的重刑監中服刑，這些後來都被戳破，是個謊言。他從來沒有因偷車而定罪，也沒有去過喬治亞州的監獄（雖然他曾因持有偷來的東西而被關過DeKalb郡的監獄，後來罪名被取消），根據現行犯（Smoking Gun）雜誌的故事，Akon以為他的歌迷喜歡這種調調兒，所以過分渲染他的自傳，他所編造的故事顯然是他打廣告的一種手腕，他重複「惡名昭彰的偷車賊」太多次使得聽起來好似他在讀提示稿，請看「Akon的騙術」（Akon’s Con Job），「The Smoking Gun」雜誌，二○○八年四月十六日， www.thesmokinggun.com/documents/crime/akons-con-job, accessed October 30, 2015。

[13] Gilmore, Manhood in the Making, p. 11.

[14] Gilmore, Manhood in the Making, p. 150.

[15] Gilmore, Manhood in the Making, p. 95.

[16] Jeffrey P. Hantover「童子軍和男子氣慨」（The Boy Scouts and the Validation of Masculinity），一九七八年刊載於Journal of Social Issues三四卷，一八四─一九五頁。也請看Julia Grant的文章「一個真正的男孩而不是膽小鬼：性別、童年和男子氣概，一八九○─一九四○」（A ‘Real Boy’ and Not a Sissy: Gender, Childhood, and Masculinity, 1890–1940），刊登在二○○四年的Journal of Social History三七卷，八二九─八五一頁。

[17] Alfred Habegger, Gender, Fantasy, and Realism in American Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), pp. 199–200.

[18] Gilmore, Manhood in the Making, p. 108.

[19] Gilmore, Manhood in the Making, p. 136.

[20] Gilmore, Manhood in the Making, p. 141.

[21] Gilmore, Manhood in the Making, p. 145.

[22] Gilmore, Manhood in the Making, p. 39.

[23] 下面是一些文獻顯示剛剛移民到美國來的女孩，她們比較不像生長在美國本地的女孩那樣焦慮或沮喪憂鬱：
• Margarita Alegria and colleagues, “Prevalence of Mental Illness in Immigrant and Non-immigrant Latino Groups,” American Journal of Psychiatry, volume 165, pp. 359–369, 2008, full text online at no charge at National Center for Biotechnology Information, US National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health (NIH), www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2712949.
• Huong Nguyen, “Asians and the Immigrant Paradox,” pp. 1–22 in Asian American and Pacific Islander Children and Mental Health, volume 1, edited by Frederick Leong and Linda Juang (New York: Praeger, 2011).
• Liza Suarez and colleagues, “Prevalence and Correlates of Childhood-Onset Anxiety Disorders Among Latinos and Non-Latino Whites in the United States,” Psicologia Conductual / Behavioral Psychology, volume 17, pp. 89–109, 2009, full text available online at no charge at National Center for Biotechnology Information, US National Library of Medicine, NIH, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2800359.
• David Takeuchi and colleagues, “Immigration and Mental Health: Diverse Findings in Asian, Black, and Latino Populations,” American Journal of Public Health, volume 97, pp. 11–12, 2007. This article is an introduction to a special issue of the American Journal of Public Health (AJPH) devoted to documenting and understanding the interaction between immigration status and mental health in the United States. Full text online at National Center for Biotechnology Information, US National Library of Medicine, NIH, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1716240. From that special issue of AJPH, see, for example, “Immigration-Related Factors and Mental Disorders Among Asian Americans,” American Journal of Public Health, volume 97, pp. 84–90, full text at AJPH, http://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.2006.088401. This article documents a peculiar gender quirk in the immigrant paradox: while the immigrant-paradox effect was generally stronger for females than for males (i.e., being born outside of the United States was more protective for females than for males), English-language proficiency was a greater risk factor for males than for females. If you are male, and you were born in Asia, and you move to the United States, then mastering English puts you at greater risk of mental disorder; but that’s not true if you are female. Go figure. Here is some of the evidence that girls whose families have recently immigrated to the United States are less likely than American-born girls to engage in binge drinking or other forms of alcohol and/or substance abuse:
• Michele Allen and colleagues, “The Relationship Between Spanish Language Use and Substance Use Behaviors Among Latino Youth,” Journal of Adolescent Health, volume 43, pp. 372–379, 2008.
• Donald Hernandez and colleagues, “Children in Immigrant Families: Demography, Policy, and Evidence for the Immigrant Paradox,” in The Immigrant Paradox in Children and Adolescents: Is Becoming American a Developmental Risk? edited by Cynthia Garcia Coll and Amy Kerivan Marks (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2011).
• Guillermo Prado and colleagues, “What Accounts for Differences in Substance Use Among U.S.-Born and Immigrant Hispanic Adolescents? Results from a Longitudinal Prospective Cohort Study,” Journal of Adolescent Health, volume 45, pp. 118–125, 2009. Prado and his colleagues document that foreign- born Hispanic adolescents are significantly less likely to engage in drug abuse than similarly situated US-born Hispanic adolescents. They conclude that the key difference is that the US-born Hispanic teens are looking to their same-age peers for guidance, while the foreign-born Hispanic teens are looking to their parents and to other adults for guidance.
• William Armando Vega and colleagues, “Illicit Drug Use Among Mexicans and Mexican Americans in California: The Effects of Gender and Acculturation,” Addiction, volume 93, pp. 1839–1850, 1998. 關於移民孩子的青少年性行為，尤其是十五歲以前的性交，請看Marcela Raffaelli、Hyeyoung Kang和Tristan Guarini合著的「探索青少年移民的性行為悖論：從生態的觀點」（Exploring the Immigrant Paradox in Adolescent Sexuality: An Ecological Perspective）在Coll和Marks編輯的《兒童與青少年移民的悖論》（The Immigrant Paradox in Children and Adolescents）書中第五章，同時請看Tristan Guarini等人合著之「拉丁美洲商青少年移民在性行為風險上的悖論：移民世代和性別差異的影響」（The Immigrant Paradox in Sexual Risk Behavior Among Latino Adolescents: Impact of Immigrant Generation and Gender）刊登在二○一一年的Applied Developmental Science一五卷，二○一─二○九頁。

[24] 在美國出生的男孩，比在美國之外的地方出生的男孩罹患精神病的風險較高的文獻，請見註23。下面是一些關於第一代移民的男孩比較不像美國出生男孩會去做犯罪的行為，如在街上賽車或暴力犯罪：
• Xi Chen and Hua Zhong, “Delinquency and Crime Among Immigrant Youth─An Integrative Review of Theoretical Explanations,” Laws, volume 2, pp. 210–232, 2013.
• Donald Hernandez and colleagues, “Children in Immigrant Families: Demography, Policy, and Evidence for the Immigrant Paradox,” in Coll and Marks, editors, The Immigrant Paradox in Children and Adolescents, cited above. These researchers find that “the immigrant paradox holds true regarding delinquency, both before and after controlling for [socioeconomic status], for most groups across the first and second generations but not across the second and third generations. The first generation of nearly all groups is less likely than Whites in native-born families [in the USA] to have engaged in delinquent behaviors.”
• John MacDonald and Jessica Saunders, “Are Immigrant Youth Less Violent? Specifying the Reasons and Mechanisms,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, volume 641, pp. 125–147, 2012. The boy who says “School is a stupid waste of time” is a boy who is not academically engaged. Here are some of the studies demonstrating that boys born in the United States are less academically engaged compared with boys who have immigrated to the United States:
• Emily Greenman, “Educational Attitudes, School Peer Context, and the Immigrant Paradox in Education,” Social Science Research, volume 42, pp. 698–714, 2013.
• Lingin Hao and Yingyi Ma, “Immigrant Youth in Postsecondary Education,” chapter 12 in Coll and Marks, editors, The Immigrant Paradox in Children and Adolescents, cited above.
• Carola Suarez-Orozco and colleagues, “Unraveling the Immigrant Paradox: Academic Engagement and Disengagement Among Recently Arrived Immigrant Youth,” Youth and Society, volume 41, pp. 151–185, 2009.
• Vivian Tseng, “Family Interdependence and Academic Adjustment in College: Youth from Immigrant and U.S.-Born Families,” Child Development, volume 75, pp. 966–983, 2004. Tseng finds that the key factor explaining the immigrant paradox in her study of 998 youth with Asian Pacific, Latino, African /Afro-Caribbean, and European backgrounds was the sense of “family obligation” that many of the immigrant youths felt, but that many of the US-born youths did not feel.

[25] 對一九六○年以前移民所遭受到不平等及刁難的待遇，請看Milton Gordon的單行本《融入美國生活：種族、宗教和原國籍所扮演的角色》（Assimilation in American Life: The Role of Race, Religion, and National Origins），紐約市牛津出版社，一九六四年出版。

[26] Coll and Marks, editors, The Immigrant Paradox in Children and Adolescents, cited above.

[27] 見前註23、24。

[28] Sherry Benton and associates, “Changes in counseling center client problems across 13 years,” Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, volume 34, p. 69, 2003.

[29] The experts convened at Dartmouth wrote a monograph entitled Hardwired to Connect: The New Scientific Case for Authoritative Communities (New York: Broadway, 2003). This quotation is from p. 10 of that monograph.

[30] Alison Cooper, “One Mazda, Two Mishaps, and a Couple of Lessons in Parenting,” Washington Post, November 19, 2006, p. B8, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/17/AR2006111701421.html.

[31] Hardwired to Connect, pp. 23, 24.

[32] Harvey Mansfield, Manliness (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006), p. 17.

[33] Mansfield, Manliness, p. 23.

[34] Mansfield, Manliness, p. 20.

[35] Mansfield, Manliness, p. 20.

第八章　解藥：讓男孩重拾動機

[1] Rhea Borja, “Nebraska Tangles with U.S. over Testing,” Education Week, February 21, 2007.

[2] Rhea Borja, “Nebraska Swims Hard Against Testing's Tides,” Education Week, February 21, 2007, pp. 32, 33, 34.

[3] Betsy Stahler and Jill Renn spoke at the National Association for Single Sex Public Education (NASSPE) Midwest Regional Conference in Lisle, Illinois, on October 14, 2006.

[4] Roland Gorges的「Der Waldkindergarten」，二○○○年春季於Unsere Jugend，二七五─二八一頁。請看Amanda Kane和Judy Kane的「Waldkindergarten in Germany」，刊載於二○一一年Green Teacher九四卷，一六─一九頁。

[5] 關於一千五百個森林幼兒園以及引用Schulte-Ostermann的話來自Rupert Neate在Der Spiegel的國際網站上的英文文章「營火孩子：回到自然和森林幼兒園」（Campfire Kids: Going Back to Nature with Forest Kindergartens）。二○一三年十一月二十二日在www.spiegel.de/international /zeitgeist/forest-kindergartens-could-be-the-next-big-export-from -germany-a-935165.html。

[6] 有少數美國學校現在實施森林幼兒園的教學，請見Kathy Boccella「進入森林：在Chesco學校，他們強調的是戶外」（Into the Woods: At Chesco School, the Emphasis Is on Outdoors）刊登在二○一五年十一月八日的Philadelphia Inquirer報B1和B2版。也請看Ruth Wilson的文章「在樹木中間教書」（Teaching Among the Trees），刊載於二○一二年冬季的American Forests，www.americanforests.org/ magazine/article/teaching-among-the-trees。

[7] Ernesto Londono and Ruben Castaneda, “Driver Who Hit Race Crowd Tried to Stop, Uncle Says,” Washington Post, February 19, 2008.

[8] 這兩段文章中所引用的話全部來自George P. Blumberg在《紐約時報》所寫的文章：“Full Throttle and Fully Legal,” September 17, 2004.

[9] Bill Center, “RaceLegal Praised for Contributing to Decline in Street Racing,” San Diego Union-Tribune, December 22, 2005.

[10] 參見我的文章：“Teens Will Speed: Let’s Watch Them Do It,” Washington Post, November 28, 2004, p. B8.

[11] Charles Moore, “Give Car Racers a Chance,” Halifax Daily News (Nova Scotia), August 13, 2007, p. 11.

[12] Valerie Kalfrin, “Police Offer Racers Chance to Beat Heat,” Tampa Tribune, December 18, 2006, Metro, p. 1.

[13] Moore, “Give Car Racers a Chance,” p. 11.

[14] 在這個句子中的五個賽車選項來自Guyspeed貼出的十個項目，http://guyspeed.com/10-wild-places-to -legally-race-your-car/，二○一五年十一月二日查詢。

[15] Elizabeth Roberts, “A Rush to Medicate Young Minds,” Washington Post, October 8, 2006, p. B7.

[16] Dr. Kathleen Salyer, personal communication, November 3, 2015.

[17] Rhoda Miel, “With 1 Billion Pounds of PLA Sold, Nature-Works Sees Rapid Growth to 2 Billion,” Plastics News, March 6, 2014.

[18] Amanda Datnow, Lea Hubbard, and Elisabeth Woody, Is Single Gender Schooling Viable in the Public Sector? Ford Foundation, 2001, p. 51. Full text available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED471051.pdf, accessed November 20, 2015.

[19] Datnow and colleagues, Is Single Gender Schooling Viable in the Public Sector? (cited above), p. 7.

[20] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, “Data Brief 162: Recent Declines in Nonmarital Childbearing in the United States. Data Table for Figure 1: Number, Percentage, and Rate of Births to Unmarried Women: United States, 1940–2013,” online at www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db162_table.pdf, accessed October 23, 2015.

[21] 美國人口調查局二○一五年十一月的最新報告是Jonathan Vespa和他人合寫的「美國家庭和生活方式：二○一二」（America's Families and Living Arrangements: 2012）由該局二○一三年出版，可見網站www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs /p20-570.pdf，這些圖片來自該篇文章的前言。

[22] 這兩段文章中所引用的話全部來自Lonnae O'Neal Parker's article for the Washington Post, “The Old Kinship Team 33 Laments Disintegration of Traditional Values, Ties,” December 29, 2006, pp. A1, A10.

[23] 事實上，二○一五年有兩位女士在耶路撒冷成為猶太教的教士（rabbot），但是東正教的規定是不準女性成為教士，請見Rabbi Yehoshua Looks的「為什麼在以色列的東正教猶太人可以成為女性的Rabbi，但是在Diaspora的不可以」（Why Orthodox Jews in Israel Can Ordain Women as Rabbis, but Those in the Diaspora Won't），二○一五年六月十八日於Haaretz。

[24] 關於康寶的意見，可參見Bill Moyers的著作：The Power of Myth (New York: Anchor, 1991).

[25] 根據Alice Rains Trulock的傳記In the Hands of Providence: Joshua L. Chamberlain and the American Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992)。亦請參見Edward Longacre所著的Joshua Chamberlain: The Soldier and the Man, reprint edition (New York: Da Capo Press, 2003).

[26] Glenn LaFantasie挑戰一般人對小圓丘戰役的看法，尤其是關於刺刀衝刺的部分。他認為阿拉巴馬第十五軍團本來就沒有準備做第六次攻擊，而且可能已經準備撤退了，這可以解釋為什麼緬因州第二十軍團一衝下來，他們就馬上投降了。請見他的書Twilight at Little Round Top: July 2, 1863─The Tide Turns at Gettysburg (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, 2005). 至於大部分的人的看法，見Michael Shaara普立茲獎的作品The Killer Angels (New York: Ballantine, 1974) ，電影Gettysburg就是根據這本書拍的，Shaara 以張伯倫做為蓋茲堡戰役中的主角。他的資訊來自參戰者的家信、日記，同時請見Stephen W. Sears所著的Gettysburg (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2003)。

[27] LaFantasie, Twilight at Little Round Top, p. 172.

[28] LaFantasie, Twilight at Little Round Top, p. 189.

[29] Sears, Gettysburg, p. 296.

[30] 無數人目擊此事並留下記錄，歷史學家同意這個事件的真實性。請看Trulock的《在上帝的手中》（In the Hands of Providence），三○四─三○六頁。

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浮萍男孩：全新增訂版

作　　者：利奧納德・薩克斯(Leonard Sax, M.D., Ph.D. )

譯　　者：洪蘭

副總編輯：陳莉苓

特約編輯：張立雯

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Boys Adrift : The Five Factors Driving the Growing Epidemic of Unmotivated Boys and Underachieving Young Men

This edition published by arrangement with Basic Books, an imprint of Perseus Books, LLC, a subsidiary of Hachette Book Group, Inc., New York, New York, USA.

through Bardon-Chinese Media Agency 博達著作權代理有限公司

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●推薦的話

重新認識身邊的男孩

邢小萍臺北市永安國小校長

書封

作／譯者簡介

推薦文 重新認識身邊的男孩 邢小萍

導 讀 男孩的成長需要適當的教育與引導 洪蘭

第1章 謎團：缺乏動機的男孩

第2章 第一個因素：學校的改變

第3章 第二個因素：電玩遊戲

第4章 第三個因素：ADHD的藥物

第5章 第四個因素：內分泌幹擾物質

第6章 結果：賴家王老五

第7章 第五個因素：被遺棄神祇的復仇

第8章 解藥：讓男孩重拾動機