浮萍男孩 | EPUBVIEWER

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作／译者简介

作者简介

利奥纳德・萨克斯

Leonard Sax, M.D., Ph.D.

是医生也是心理学家，为美国单性公立教育协会（National Association for Single-Sex Public Education, NASSPE）的创办人和执行长。学术性相关研究发表在许多知名期刊上，包括《美国心理学家》（American Psychologist）、《行为神经科学》（Behavioral Neuroscience）、《美国医学期刊》（Journal of American Medical Association）、《美国营养学院期刊》（Journal of the American College of Nutrition）以及《性研究期刊》（Journal of Sex Research）等等，并着有《养男育女调不同》和《棉花糖女孩》（远流出版）等书。他是知名的演说家，一年在全球有五十场的演讲，曾多次接受美国有线电视新闻网（CNN）、美国公共电视（PBS）、福斯新闻（Fox News）、美国公共广播电台（NPR）、美国之声（Voice of America）、《今日秀》（The Today Shows）及许多其他节目的采访，讨论性别差异在孩子学习上的重要性。

作者官网 https://www.leonardsax.com/

译者简介

洪兰

加州大学河滨校区实验心理学博士，在加州大学尔湾医学院神经科和耶鲁大学哈斯金实验室接受博士后训练，曾任教于加州大学河滨分校、中正大学、阳明大学、中央大学，并为中央大学认知神经科学研究所的创所所长。

洪教授已翻译了五十七本生物科技及心理学方面的好书，包括《棉花糖女孩》、《浮萍男孩》、《养男育女调不同》、《心智拼图》、《天生爱学样》、《教养的迷思》、《快思慢想》、《改变是大脑的天性》、《自愈是大脑的本能》等。

洪博士曾获颁吴大猷科学普及著作奖翻译类金签奖、2005年东元科技文教基金会特别贡献奖、2011年远见杂志华人领袖终身成就奖。

有感于教育是国家的根本，而阅读是教育的根本，前后去过台湾大大小小超过三千所的中小学作推广阅读的演讲，深受各界推崇。

着有《讲理就好》等二十五本书。

导读男孩的成长需要适当的教育与引导洪兰

男孩的成长需要适当的教育与引导

洪兰

　　以前我做学生时，班上没有一个同学是过动或注意力缺失，现在几乎每一班都至少有一个，有的班还高到四、五个。顽皮的孩子自古至今都有，男生没有调过皮、挨过打，好像就不可能长大，但是皮到要带去给医生看、要吃药，好像是没有。所以这个注意力缺失过动症（Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, ADHD）就变成了二十一世纪非常引人瞩目的疾病。本书作者是个家医科医生，又在宾州大学念到心理学的博士学位，手边有临床门诊的资料，又有作研究的训练，加上「好奇」是人的本性，他就开始去研究为什么本世纪有么多过动／注意力缺失的孩子，而且为什么男生居多。

　　疾病是不分性别一律肆虐的，如果分性别，那么可能有基因上的原因，使某个性别容易受疾病的侵害；也可能有社会的因素，对某个性别特别不利，所以值得研究。他发现真正应该吃药的过动儿不多，许多是误诊，吃了不该吃的药，因为父母的期待和老师、医生的方便（没有父母能接受我的孩子功课不好是他比较笨的关系，如果是疾病，那么父母颜面没有失，毕竟人要生病是没有办法的事；服了药，孩子安静下来，可以坐在课堂上听讲了，对老师是个很大的精神压力解脱；很多医生是只要病人不抱怨，老师、父母都要求用药时，开了药皆大欢喜，所以治标的各种药物就越开越多了）。但是基本上，这是锯箭疗伤的方式，并不能解决问题，本书的作者在门诊繁忙之余，费心找出该现象的社会原因，解除孩子的痛苦，是很令人敬佩的。

　　过动／注意力缺失是男孩、女孩都有的毛病，为何本书只偏重男生的现象和发生原因呢？这是因为男生情况比较严重，先从严重的救起。在大脑的发展上男生成熟得比女生慢。美国国家卫生研究院（NIH）曾经做过一个大型的大脑发展造影研究，扫描了一千七百多个从幼儿园到青春期孩子的大脑，结果发现男生与女生在大脑不同区域成熟的顺序和时间不同。一般来说，女生早熟，甚至可以早到两年的差距，所以有些六年级的女生看起来像高中生，有些国二的男生看起来像五年级小学生。最近比较人类学的基因研究发现，男生与公黑猩猩有百分之九九・四的基因相同，比与人类女性的共同基因还多一些。所以男生在看、听、嗅觉方面与公黑猩猩的相似性大于人类的女性。这一点对了解性别差异很重要，男女在处理事情上的不同是来自大脑结构与神经回路活化上所造成的功能上的不同。

　　在台湾谈性别差异是件危险的事，我曾因为谈到男女在同一件事的处理上大脑有不同之处，而被猛烈攻击，甚至黑函说我政治不正确。但是在实验上的确有看到差异，所以必须要讲。其实每个人有每个人擅长的地方，真正的男女平等应该是每个人去做每个人擅长的事，不论它是刻板的男生的事或刻板的女生的事。法律要保障的是机会的平等和薪水的平等。作者也看到了男女大脑上的不同，所以他认为男生需要适合男生天性的课程表，从他们的长处切入，去开启教导他们的心智。他说男生需要常常去户外活动，在大自然中观察，从实际动手操作中学习（其实女性也是需要）。如果孩子花很多时间在电脑萤幕前面而不在户外，会有所谓的「文化自闭症」（Cultural Autism），最后形成被孤立、牵制、阻遏的那种「隧道感官」感觉（Tunneled Senses），他们抓不到概念或问题的重心。因此，从本书中，你可以强烈感觉到作者赞成男女分校或分班，男生需要竞争才会有动机。作者举了很多例子来支持他的看法。我来自女校，回想自己的成长过程，我承认他讲的有道理。

　　由于全球竞争激烈，每个父母都希望孩子及早学习，忘记了学习有「成熟」这个条件。现在幼儿园做的是小学一年级的工作，美国从幼儿园开始教认字、写字（台湾也是），假如男生成熟得慢，还不能读和写，这时，他会讨厌上学，因为上学是挫折，是去做一件他能力还做不到的事。其实北欧很多学校是七岁才启蒙上学，他们的国力发展也没有比我们五岁就学写字的差。太早要求孩子去做他还没有准备好、还未成熟到可以做的事，对孩子的身心都不好。

　　读者可以想像马路上有个裂缝，大人一脚就跨过去了，孩子则必须蹲下来爬过去，爬时还得战战兢兢，生怕掉下去。但是等孩子长大一点，脚步变宽时，他也一步就跨过去了。小时候看希腊神话金羊毛（Golden Fleece）的电影，巨人一脚就跨过了博斯普鲁斯海峡；或是《格列佛游记》里的格列佛一把就把船抓起来，多么轻而易举。看到台湾的父母，孩子才三岁两个月就送去学国文数学，真让我心痛。这本书有很多篇幅是为了这样的父母写的，作者从大脑的观点来劝告父母不要揠苗助长，每个人大脑的成熟时间不一样，大脑同一区块男女成熟的时间也不一样，不必心急，晚一年上学没有所谓的面子问题，幼儿园本来就是个学习与别人相处的游戏地方，没有「被当掉」的面子问题。

　　至于为什么白人小孩被诊断为ADHD的比例高，这是社会偏见的关系。一个白人小孩拿到Ｃ，而老师认为他应该拿Ａ，老师就会怀疑他是不是注意力有缺失，上课没有好好听，回家没有好好做功课；但是假如一个黑人或墨西哥孩子拿到Ｃ，老师可能认为他是能力所限，无法拿到更好的成绩，就不会建议父母带孩子去找医生开药。作者坦承美国有很多人，包括黑人老师在内，仍是对白人孩子有较高的期待，他们会认为这个白人小孩没有发挥出他的潜能，应该寻求改进方法。想不到这反而使不需要服药的白人孩子服了药，变成白人ADHD的机率比黑人高出了许多。这也许是种族歧视者前所未料的吧！

　　那么，如果孩子不是过动／注意力缺失，为什么吃了药就安静下来，学习就进步了呢？麻省理工学院盖伯瑞利教授的实验回答了这个问题。盖伯瑞利真是神通广大，能得到父母的同意，给正常的孩子吃注意力缺失过动症的药；他也得到病童父母同意，暂时给注意力缺失过动症的孩子停药。他在这段期间测试儿童，看他们在有药、无药的情况下学习的情形。结果发现药物会增进正常儿童的学习，增进的强度与有注意力缺失过动症的儿童的程度一模一样。这些药物都是促使大脑中血清张素的浓度增加，而血清张素跟记忆、注意力、动机都有直接的关系，难怪过动／注意力缺失的误诊率这么高。很多人都认为吃了药有效，就一定是这个病，其实不见得。路上很多人打伞时，阴沟的水会涨高，但是那是因为下雨的关系，雨水才是真正的原因，打伞只是个表象。

　　现在许多家长很短视，只要孩子功课好，什么都可以牺牲。既然吃了药记忆力会好，为何不给他吃？他们会要求医生开药。最近动物的研究发现这些药物会影响大脑，尤其是伏隔核，会使动物失去动机：肚子饿，食物放在面前懒得吃，连敌人来都懒得逃命。在人类身上也看到同样情形，最近脑造影研究发现，七到十四岁的男生如果玩太多电玩，会影响伏隔核和背侧前额叶皮质（DLPFC）的平衡，伏隔核是把动机和驱力送到DLPFC去、DLPFC再给这个驱力回馈报酬的目标和情境，这两个区域密切合作，这个人就有动机，朝真实世界的目标前进。但是如果电玩游戏将血液引入伏隔核，使DLPFC的血流量减少，这时电玩游戏本身就给了孩子达到目的的回馈报酬，而这回馈报酬并没有连接到真实的世界，所以他们对真实世界的成就不再感兴趣。电玩刺激大脑的伏隔核区，就跟吸食古柯碱所影响的地方一样，所以电玩会上瘾。

　　其实男生和女生真的有不同，从孩子的行为上就可以看出。我和我妹妹都曾到动物收养中心去领养过流浪猫，我妹妹的两个女儿会替猫洗澡，用洗衣篮替牠布置一个温暖的窝；我的儿子就把猫塞到他的Ｔ恤里假装他在怀孕，结果猫逃出来时，在他胸前狠狠留下五道血爪印。男生闯了祸不敢说，等我替他洗澡时才发现，他怕我骂，还一直说不痛、不痛。

　　男孩并不会因长大就自动变成男人，他们需要被教导、被引导，需要借由各种挑战证明给别人看，他的身体、心智都已成熟，可以脱离父母保护，独当一面，他才算成年。年龄跟成熟之间不是等号关系，古人十六岁弱冠，变成大人，现在十六岁男生还要妈妈叫起床才不会迟到，不但不能谋生养家，每天还要跟家里拿零用钱。

　　男孩需要磨练才能成为男人，我很赞成作者说的让孩子去劳动服务，从流汗中学到做为一个男人是什么意思，当你自己可以种出米来吃、盖出房子来住时，你就知道你可以独当一面了。所以电视广告说喝了某个牌子的啤酒才是真正的男人，劳动服务过的孩子知道不对，真正的男人跟喝什么牌子的啤酒无关，跟你有无能力去服务别人有关系。

　　本书最好的地方是作者在指出所有造成孩子没有动机的因素后，最后给父母指出一条生路，建议父母可以怎么做去改变孩子，让孩子重拾动机。他在书中所提的方法都很简单，只要有心，便可以做到的：如尽量带孩子去跟大自然接触，在他背青蛙的解剖图之前，先知道什么是青蛙，并且摸过青蛙、玩过蝌蚪。作者说内布拉斯加的学校不再用纸笔测验来评估小学生对电流的知识，而是要他们自己组装一个电回路，如果组装正确，那么回路板上的马达就会动，铃声就会响。孩子从铃声中，不但得到他的自信心，还确实把电流的知识学进去了。作者的话使我想起李家同教授对台湾电机系学生的批评，或许新任教育部长真的应该好好看一下这本书。

　　另外，作者建议父母一定要用心替孩子找一个适合他的学校，学校跟孩子的契合实在太重要了，孩子一天有八个小时在学校生活，如果老师的教学、校长的理念不适合他，而他必须每天去受八个小时的罪，实在太可怜了。很多时候，适合哥哥的学校，对弟弟可能不合。我很赞成德国人的话：「没有什么天气叫不好，只有合不合适的衣服。」

　　作者特别强调不让孩子走上歧路，必须替他指出另一条可行的路，行为才会改善。这点真是台湾父母最常犯的错误，我们常懒得说理，都用权威的命令方式说话：「我告诉你不行就是不行」，使得孩子阳奉阴违、亲子关系疏离。其实教养孩子是个艺术，材料不同，雕刻的方法就不同，逆着树纹雕刻会糟蹋了好木头。教养孩子绝对不是科学，科学有重复性，甲做成功、乙用同样方式也会成功，但是教养孩子不是，别人孩子打骂会成材，你家孩子打骂会离家出走，不可东施效颦，以免误了孩子的一生。

　　世界变化的很快，二○○七年一月七日第一代的苹果手机问市，在这十三年间，它整个革新了我们生活的方式，改变了我们对世界的看法。有鉴于此，作者花了很多时间和心血重新修订这本书，添增很多这十年来大脑科学的新知识，以符合时代的需求。这增订版比以前更像是一盏明灯，在父母走投无路不知该怎么办时，指出有效的亲子教养方法和它背后的真谛，这真是一本难得的好书，诚挚的推荐给各位读者。

第1章谜团：缺乏动机的男孩

有比以前更多的年轻人倒在前进美国之梦的路旁，

这个结果就是惊慌的父母不知道为什么他们的孩子

不能、不愿独立去过自己的生活。

他们像浮萍一样，到处漂泊，

随着生命的潮流把他带到天涯海角。

为什么有的男孩会成功，有的男孩却毫不在乎地随波逐流呢？

他要去哪里？你能帮得上忙吗？

这就是你和我要一起探讨的核心问题。

第2章第一个因素：学校的改变

假如人是精密的电脑，学习就等于电脑程式，老师就是电脑程式设计师。

假如我们给老师一套正确的标准指示，

那么只要按一下开关，小孩子就会学习了，

一种有效率、不可能出错的学习。

只要老师依照指示执行命令，好的学习结果就指日可待。

完全不可能出错。保证不失败。只要学生和电脑一样就行了。

但他们不是。

电脑不需要动机就能做你要它做的事，但是孩子需要动机。

第3章第二个因素：电玩游戏

电玩游戏的破坏性效果不在男生的认知能力或他的反应时间上，

而在他的动机和他跟真实世界的连接上。

这些男生可能不是高动机的，但是他们的动机被引导到不对的地方，出轨了。

他们是有动机，但是他们与真实世界分离了。

电玩世界对他们来说更真实，至少比他们的功课、成绩和大学申请信的世界更真实。

电玩游戏特别倾向于提升与真实世界的中断和分离，

正是因为这种暴力的不真实性。

你的儿子知道他不能对学校中他不喜欢的孩子发射光子鱼雷。

第4章第三个因素：ADHD的药物

「但是这有伤害吗？」一个家长问我。

假如这种药物帮助孩子在班上的表现好，又没有什么伤害，

为什么不给他吃呢？

现在，我们就要来看这个重要的问题：有没有害？害在哪里？

许多男孩在服用这些药物时看起来都没事。

这些父母亲所不知道的，而医生也可能不知道的，

是即使服用这些药的期间很短，还是可以造成人格的改变。

一个本来很随和、外向、有冒险精神的男孩，会变得懒惰和易怒。

第5章第四个因素：内分泌干扰物质

我们已经看到暴露在环境雌激素下会引起肥胖，男女都不能幸免。

暴露在合成的内分泌干扰物质之下会加速女生的青春期到来，

同样的化学物质会干扰或减慢男生青春期的历程。

我们现在也知道这些物质可以引起注意力缺失过动症。

科学家现在发现延后的青春期、过胖和注意力缺失过动症

三者一起发生的机率大于我们预期的，

但还是只有在男生身上。

我们毒害环境的结果是使女生像男又像女，

而男生是既不像男也不像女。

第6章结果：赖家王老五

当一位研究者问大学生结婚比较好、还是单身一辈子比较好时，

三分之二的男生选结婚比较好，一半以上的女生认为一辈子单身比较好。

二十五年前，三十五到四十岁的美国男人只有百分之八从来没有结过婚，现在是百分之二十二，而且数字还在往上升。

《赖家王老五》一上演，立刻变成卖座第一的电影，

我很惊讶这个电影竟然非常真确地抓住了我这七年所看到的现象。

男主角是个很聪明的人，他完全可以很成功、很有成就，

但就是没有任何动机去完成任何真实的事情。

第7章第五个因素：被遗弃神祇的复仇

文化有一部分是由「什么是一个真正的男人」这个问题的答案所界定的，

忽略这个问题的后果并不是一个雌雄同体的孩子的世代。

结果是一方面，年轻男孩没有动机去工作或服务，

对无限期住在父母家不觉羞耻，对只拿不给也不觉得羞耻；

另一方面，我们开始得到一个可怕的收成，

一些在乎自己是不是真正男人的年轻人，在没有成年男子团体的引导下，转向帮派暴力、药物滥用或飙车来肯定他们的男性认同。

这个男子气概的崩盘及贬值，是目前青少年流行文化现象背后的主因。

第8章解药：让男孩重拾动机

我并没有全部的答案，事实上，我还差得远。

但是我知道我们至少在问对的问题。

那些采取策略的家长从美国的各个角落寄给我成功的故事，

这些故事是不分族群、种族、地理位置，

也不分男孩、少男、二十岁的年轻人。

假如这本书你看到这里了，你知道我们还有很多的工作要做，

没有人可以独力完成，我们必须一起努力才行。

NOTES 注释

第一章　谜团：缺乏动机的男孩

[1] 本书所有的故事都是真实的，在很多情况下，我更改了当事人的名字及可能会指认出他的细节，以保护他的隐私，电子邮件信箱号码是得到对方的首肯，以便读者与他们沟通。

[2] 实例参见Tamar Lewin为《纽约时报》写的文章： “At College, Women Are Leaving Men in the Dust,” July 9, 2006, pp. A1, A18, A19.

[3] 美国教育部、教育科学研究院的国家教育统计中心（NCES）二○一二年八月所发表的《高等教育：机会和持续差距的研究》（Higher Education: Gaps in Access and Persistence Study,），可在网路上下载全文：http://nces.ed .gov/pubs2012/2012046.pdf（译注：这是国会要求教育部所做的有关性别和种族在高等教育上就学机会的报告）。

[4] 根据美国教育部二○一五年五月三十日所公布的数据，二○一三年有1,699,704位女性就读美国大学的研究所，而只有1,201,160位男性念研究所，所以是58.6%女性VS. 41.4%男性追求学士后的学位。这数据来自美国教育部教育科学研究院的国家教育统计中心《教育统计文摘》（Digest of Education Statistics）图表303.60「从注册学生的性别和其他特质来看二○一三年研究所秋季注册情形」（Total Fall Enrollment in Degree-Granting Postsecondary Institutions, by Level of Enrollment, Sex of Student, and Other Selected Characteristics, 2013）本资料可从网站上下载：http://nces.ed.gov/programs /digest/d14/tables/dt14_303.60.asp。

[5] 这些资料来自美国教育部，教育科学研究院，国家教育统计中心，教育统计文摘，表303.70「从一九七○到二○二四，秋季注册授予学位的大学部学生的性别实际上课情形」，这份资料可以从网上下载：http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d14/tables/dt14_303.70.asp。二○一四年之后为预测。

[6] 摘自美国教育部，教育科学研究院，国家教育统计中心，二○一五年五月《教育情况》（The Condition of Education 2015, May 2015, p. xxxiv）二○○七年秋季开始他们学士学位的学生中，有59%的学生在六年之内拿到学位，女性的毕业率为62%，比男性的56%高，见http:// nces.ed.gov/pubs2015/2015144.pdf，在一九七六─七七年间，有494,424的男性从美国大学获得他们的学士学位，而女性只有423,476，所以男性是53.9%而女性只有46.1%，但是到了二○一一─一二年时，男性拿到学士学位的为765,317而女性为1,025,729，也就是说，在所有拿到学士学位的学位中，男性为42.7%而女性为57.3%。一九七六─七七年的资料来自美国教育部，教育科学研究所，国家教育统计中心，《教育统计文摘》，表262「一九七六─七七到二○○二─○三，美国授予学士学位大学学生性别和种族类别统计」，该份资料可以从网路下载：http://nces.ed.gov/programs /digest/d04/tables/dt04_262.asp，二○一一─一二数据来自美国教育部，教育科学研究院，国家教育统计中心《教育统计文摘》表301.10「从大学或专科，学生性别，职员种类和学位不同来看二○一○秋季，二○一一年秋季，和二○一一─一二年赋予学位和不赋予学位高中以上学校学生注册情形」，这份资料在https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_301 .10.asp。

[7] 同样请参见前注释3, 4, 5, 6。

[8] 我的论文题为 “Reclaiming Kindergarten: Making kindergarten less harmful to boys,” published in Psychology of Men and Masculinity, vol. 2, pp. 3-12, 2001. 你可以在以下的网址免费阅览：www.BoysAdrift.com. 但其实文中所言本书不仅都有，而且多更多。

第二章　第一个因素：学校的改变

[1] Jerry D. Weast, Superintendent of Schools for Montgomery County, Maryland, “Why We Need Rigorous, Full-Day Kindergarten,” from the May 2001 issue of Principal magazine.

[2] Hyo Jung Kang和他二十四位来自美国、克罗西亚、英国、德国和葡萄牙共同作者发表了这篇令人震惊的论文，从胚胎期到婴儿期、童年期、青春期、成年初期，中期到晚期大脑中基因展现所导致的性别差异，我用「令人震惊」这个字，因为大脑最大的性别差异是在胚胎期的时候。这篇论文的名字是「人类大脑，空间时间的转录组」（Spatiotemporal Transcriptome of the Human Brain），二○一一年发表于《自然期刊》（Nature）四七八卷，四八三─四八九页。

[3] Jay Giedd和同事们「青少年大脑结构男女性别在功能性核磁共振上差异的评论」（Review: Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Male/Female Differences in Human Adolescent Brain Anatomy）刊登在二○一二年的Biology of Sex Differences第三卷一九期。整篇论文可在网路上下载：www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/2042-6410-3-19.pdf。

[4] Jennifer Bramen和同事的「Sex Matters During Adolescence: Testosterone-Related Cortical Thickness Maturation Differs Between Boys and Girls」发表在二○一二年三月二十九日的PLOS One，DOI: 10.1371 /journal.pone.0033850，请同时参考Tuong-Vi Nguyen和同事的「从童年到青春期：跟睾固酮有关的皮质成熟」（Testosterone-Related Cortical Maturation Across Childhood and Adolescence），发表在二○一三年《大脑皮质》（Cerebral Cortex）二三卷，一四二四─一四三二页。

[5] Rhoshel Lenroot和同事（一共十二位共同作者）的「从童年到青春期大脑发展的性别差异」（Sexual Dimorphism of Brain Developmental Trajectories During Childhood and Adolescence），发表在二○○七年《神经影像》（NeuroImage）三六卷，一○六五─一○七三页。

[6] Madhura Ingalhalikar和同事的「人类大脑连接组结构在性别上的差异」（Sex Differences in the Structural Connectome of the Human Brain）刊登在二○一四年《美国国家科学院学报》（Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences）一一一卷，八二三─八二八页。这些作者认为「研究结果显示男性在脑半球内的沟通最佳，而女性在脑半球间的沟通最佳」（八二三页），请参考Julia Sacher和她的同事在「人类大脑的性别差异：来自大脑影像的证据」（Sexual Dimorphism in the Human Brain: Evidence from Neuroimaging），二○一三年于《核磁共振》（Magnetic Resonance Imaging）三一卷，三六六─三七五页。这些研究者在大小孩和小小孩的大脑中发现很大的性别差异，然而Vickie Yu和她的同事用脑磁波仪（magnetoencephalography, MEG）而不是MRI，发现四到九岁儿童与十岁以上的大小孩比起来，有更大的性别差异，请参考她们的论文「语言侧化中跟年龄有关的性别差异：儿童的脑磁波仪研究」（Age-Related Sex Differences in Language Lateralization: A Magnetoencephalography Study in Children），二○一四年发表在《发展心理学》期刊（Developmental Psychology）五○卷，二二七六─二二八四页。同样的，在六到十七岁儿童的脑磁波仪研究中，Abhijeet Gummadavelli和同事发现六到十三岁儿童的性别差异大于十四到十七岁的孩子，请参考他们的论文「时间空间和字频在发展中大脑的字辨识作业上：一个脑磁波仪的研究」（Spatiotemporal and Frequency Signatures of Word Recognition in the Developing Brain: A Magnetoencephalographic Study），二○一三年《大脑研究》（Brain Research）一四九八卷，二○─三二页。脑磁波仪测量电波的活动，而核磁共振显现大脑结构，这些研究所显现的性别差异不同，有可能是因为幼年期大脑性别差异的电流活动比较显著，而童年后期和青春期时，神经连接和大脑结构在性别差异上比较显著。

[7] 本节的评论是以我在马里兰州蒙哥马利郡花了十八年时间（一九九○─二○○八）观察上千名孩童，以及史提派克（Deborah Stipek）一系列的论文为基础的。请参见：
• Deborah Stipek and colleagues, “Good Beginnings: What Difference Does the Program Make in Preparing Young Children for School?” in the Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, volume 19, pp. 41–66, 1998.
• Deborah Stipek, “Pathways to Constructive Lives: The Importance of Early School Success,” in the book Constructive & Destructive Behavior: Implications for Family, School, & Society, published by the American Psychological Association, pp. 291–315, 2001.
• Tricia Valeski and Deborah Stipek, “Young Children's Feelings About School,” Child Development, volume 72, pp. 1198–1213, 2001. In this review, Valeski and Stipek observe that children who fail to do well in kindergarten develop “negative perceptions of competence,” and those negative perceptions may be “difficult to reverse as children progress through school” (p. 1199).

[8] 这些数据来自二○一四年「经济合作和发展组织」（Organisation for Economic Co- operation and Development, OECD）的《PISA二○一二年结论：学生知道什么和可以做些什么：学生在数学、阅读和科学上的表现》（PISA 2012 Results: What Students Know and Can Do: Student Performance in Mathematics, Reading, and Science,），www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa -2012-results-volume-i.htm，图1.4.1，「比较国家和经济在阅读上的表现」（Comparing Countries’ and Economies’ Performance in Reading）。

[9] 我不认为七岁才入学是芬兰教育成功的唯一因素，但是我的确认为这个因素没有得到它应有的重视。另一个重要的因素是芬兰老师选拔的标准──比照美国医科学生的选择。对于芬兰教育成另的原因请阅读Pasi Sahlberg二○一四年出版的《芬兰教育改革学到什么？》（Finnish Lessons 2.0: What Can the World Learn from Educational Change in Finland?）纽约：教师学院出版社（New York: Teachers College Press）。

[10] 我从美国教育部，教育科学研究院国家教育统计中心PISA专案表S2拿到这些资料，这个表的标题为「二○一二年十五岁学生在教育系统中PISA科学素养尺度的平均分数」（Average Scores of 15-Year-Old Students on PISA Science Literacy Scale, by Education System: 2012），此表在网站： http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/pisa/pisa2012/pisa2012highlights_4a.asp。上海、香港、台北和澳门都表现的比美国学生好，二○一二年的资料我在二○一五年十一月时上网去查都还可以查得到。

[11] 例如Daphna Bassok和Sean Reardon「晚入学幼稚园：盛行率、形态和意义」（Academic Redshirting’ in Kindergarten: Prevalence, Patterns, and Implications），发表于二○一三年《教育评鉴和政策分析》（Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis）三五卷，二八三─二九七页。

[12] Betsy Newell及Dana Haddad的引文都来自Elissa Gootman刊登在《纽约时报》头版的文章“Preschoolers Grow Older as Parents Seek an Edge,” October 19, 2006.

[13] 参见我的论文 “Reclaiming kindergarten: Making kindergarten less harmful to boys,” Psychology of Men & Masculinity, vol. 2, pp. 3-12, 2001. 你可以到www.BoysAdrift.com网站免费观看所有的内容。

[14] Elizabeth Lonsdorf, Lynn Eberly, and Anne Pusey, “Sex Differences in Learning in Chimpanzees,” Nature, volume 428, pp. 715–716, 2004.

[15] Elizabeth Lonsdorf和同事们的「男孩永远是男孩：野外黑猩猩婴儿在社交互动上的性别差异」（Boys Will Be Boys: Sex Differences in Wild Infant Chimpanzee Social Interactions），二○一四年刊登在《动物行为》（Animal Behavior）八八卷，七九─八三页。另外Lonsdorf和她的同事还有一篇「野外黑猩猩婴儿性别差异的显现」（Sex Differences in Wild Chimpanzee Behavior Emerge During Infancy），发表于二○一四年六月九日的PLOS One，DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099099。

[16] Derek Wildman和他的同事「天择时人类和黑猩猩之间99.4%非同义突变DNA的意义」（Implications of Natural Selection in Shaping 99.4 Percent Nonsynonymous DNA Identity Between Humans and Chimpanzees），二○○三年《美国国家科学院学报》第一○○期，七一八一─七一八八页。

[17] 我对人类和灵长类视觉的性别差异分析，请看我的书《棉花糖女孩》，台湾远流出版公司出版，第一三二─一三八页，同时请看Robert Handa和Robert McGivern的论文「视觉系统中性别在类固醇、荷尔蒙、感受体和视知觉与认知上的差异」（Steroid Hormones, Receptors, and Perceptual and Cognitive Sex Differences in the Visual System），二○一五年发表于Current Eye Research四○卷，一一○─一二七页。而我对听力性别差异的分析，请看我的论文「听力的性别差异：教室中最佳措施的意义」（Sex Differences in Hearing: Implications for Best Practice in the Classroom），二○一○年发表于Advances in Gender and Education第二期一三─二一页。对于跨物种和感官（听觉、视觉和嗅觉）的评论，请看Joseph Schroeder's在《心理学性别研究手册》（Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology）的章节，二三五─二五七页。这本书是由J. C. Chrisler和D. R. McCreary主编，纽约Springer公司二○一○年出版。

[18] Gillian Brown and Alan Dixon, “The Development of Behavioural Sex Differences in Infant Rhesus Macaques,” Primates, volume 41, pp. 63–77, 2000.

[19] 灵长类学家不用保姆（babysitting）这个字，他们喜欢用「异亲」（alloparenting）。当妈妈需要去找食物时，牠会把宝宝交给女儿，但不会交给儿子，我们的灵长类亲戚一般都是用这种异亲抚育，都是交给女儿照顾，请看David Watts和Anne Pusey「大猿的少年和青少年行为」（Behavior of Juvenile and Adolescent Great Apes）一四八─一六七页，在Michael Pereira和Lynn Fairbanks主编之《少年的灵长类：生命史，发展和行为》（Juvenile Primates: Life History, Development, and Behavior），纽约牛津大学出版社，二○○二年出版。

[20] Carolyn Pope Edwards, “Behavioral Sex Differences in Children of Diverse Cultures: The Case of Nurturance to Infants,” chapter 22 in Pereira and Fairbanks, Juvenile Primates.

[21] 我们教男生和女生未成年不可以喝酒，但是在男女合校的情况下，忽略这条法律会使你在男生的眼里地位升高，因此，现在发现，念男女合校的高中女生及男女合校的大学女生，酗酒及因酒后而闹事的情形比同一社区读女校的女生比例来得高。请见Avshalom Caspi, Donald Lynam, Terrie Moffitt, and Phil Silva, “Unraveling Girls’ Delinquency: Biological, dispositional, and contextual contributions to adolescent misbehavior.” Developmental Psychology, vol. 29, pp. 19-30, 1993。至于女子大学的女生跟其他条件相同但是男女合校的女生比较的研究，请见George Dowdall, Miriam Curtin的「十五─十六岁女孩的抽烟和喝酒行为：男性的同侪对她们有影响吗？」（Smoking and Drinking Among 15–16-Year-Old Girls: Do Male Peers Have an Influence?），二○○四年《爱尔兰医学科学期刊》（Irish Journal of Medical Science）第一七三卷，一九一─一九二页。

[22] Marianne Hurst, “Girls Seen to Help Avert Violence,” Education Week, May 18, 2005, p. 12.

[23] 例如参见Omar Yousaf, Elizabeth Grunfeld, and Myra Hunter, “A Systematic Review of the Factors Associated with Delays in Medical and Psychological Help-Seeking Among Men,” Health Psychology Review, volume 9, pp. 264–276, 2015.

[24] 虽然很多研究者都注意到女生问路跟男生不同，但是Deborah Tannen把这一点说明的最清楚，请看她的书《你不了解男生和女生在聊天上的不同》（You Just Don't Understand: Men and Women in Conversation）修订版，纽约HarperCollins二○○一年出版。

[25] Pereira and Fairbanks, Juvenile Primates, Part II, “Growing into Different Worlds,” p. 75.

[26] Russell Mittermeier and colleagues, “Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates, 2004–2006,” Primate Conservation, volume 20, pp. 1–28, 2006.

[27] Lisbeth B. Lindahl and Mikael Heimann, “Social Proximity in Early Mother-Infant Interactions: Implications for Gender Differences?” Early Development and Parenting, volume 6, pp. 83–88, 1997.

[28] 参见Jianzhong Xu, “Gender and Homework Management Reported by High School Students,” Educational Psychology, volume 26, pp. 73–91, 2006; and also Wei-Cheng Mau and Richard Lynn, “Gender Differences in Homework and Test Scores in Mathematics, Reading and Science at Tenth and Twelfth Grade,” Psychology, Evolution, and Gender, volume 2, pp. 119–125, 2000.

[29] Lynne Rogers and Sue Hallam, “Gender Differences in Approaches to Studying for the GCSE Among High-Achieving Pupils,” Educational Studies, volume 32, pp. 59–71, 2006.

[30] Angela Lee Duckworth and Martin E. P. Seligman, “Self-Discipline Gives Girls the Edge: Gender in Self-Discipline, Grades, and Achievement Test Scores,” Journal of Educational Psychology, volume 98, pp. 198–208, 2006.

[31] Valeski and Stipek, “Young Children's Feelings About School,” cited above.

[32] Eva Pomerantz, Ellen Altermatt, and Jill Saxon, “Making the Grade but Feeling Distressed: Gender Differences in Academic Performance and Internal Distress,” Journal of Educational Psychology, volume 94, pp. 396–404, 2002.

[33] Duckworth and Seligman, “Self-Discipline Gives Girls the Edge.”

[34] Rene A. Spitz, “Hospitalism: An Enquiry into the Genesis of Psychiatric Conditions in Early Childhood,” Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, volume 1, pp. 53–74, 1945.

[35] Richard Louv, Last Child in the Woods: Saving Our Children from Nature-Deficit Disorder (Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books, 2005).

[36] Louv, Last Child in the Woods, p. 57.

[37] Louv, Last Child in the Woods, pp. 63, 67.

[38] Quoted in Louv, Last Child in the Woods, p. 66.

[39] Quoted in Louv, Last Child in the Woods, p. 104.

[40] 例如参见Andrea Faber Taylor and Frances E. Kuo, “Could Exposure to Everyday Green Spaces Help Treat ADHD? Evidence from Children's Play Settings,” Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, volume 3, pp. 281–303, 2011.

[41] 对于美国过去三十年来，ADHD诊断率的上升以及它升起的背后原因，请看我的书《教养，你可以做得更好》远流出版，第三章。

[42] Quoted in Louv, Last Child in the Woods, p. 47.

[43] 这个最简单的定义是取自奈瑟（Ulric Neisser）。奈瑟是一九六七年创造出「认知心理学」（cognitive psychology）的第一人，他对于认知（cognition）的定义如下：「这个名词『认知』是指感觉输入在转变、减少、精致化、储存、提取和使用所有的过程。它主要是讯息处理的过程，就算是没有相关的刺激，如幻觉时和心像时，它的运作历程仍是认知的一部分。认知在这么广的定义下，就跟人类所有可以做的事情都有关了，每一个心理的现象都是认知的现象。」（Ulric Neisser, Cognitive Psychology, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967, p. 4; emphasis added.）

[44] Gabrielle Weiss and Lily Hechtman, “The Hyperactive Child Syndrome,” Science, volume 205, pp. 1348–1354, 1979.

[45] Alan Schwarz and Sarah Cohen, “A.D.H.D. Seen in 11% of U.S. Children as Diagnoses Rise,” New York Times, March 31, 2013.

[46] Jay Mathews的文章叫做「研究对男孩危机产生怀疑：成绩的进步逼近女生的领先」（Study Casts Doubt on the Boy Crisis: Improving Test Scores Cut into Girls’ Lead），《华盛顿邮报》二○○六年六月二十六日头版。

[47] Judith Warner, “What Boy Crisis?,” New York Times, July 3, 2006.

[48] Judith Warner, “Is There Really a ‘Boy Crisis’? Most Boys Are Doing Just Fine,” March 21, 2013, http://ideas.time.com/2013/03/21/the-boy-crisis-is-it-fictional.

[49] David Von Drehle, “The Myth About Boys,” Time, July 26, 2007.

[50] 关于种族、性别和社会阶级交互作用的讨论，请见Richard Whitmire和Susan McGee Bailey二○一○年春的对话「性别差异」（Gender Gap），Education Next网站http://educationnext.org/gender-gap。

[51] 克莱费尔教授是在二○○六年六月六日白宫所举办的「帮助美国年轻人」（Helping America's Youth）研讨会上报告的资料。你可以在www.singlesexschools.org/Kleinfeld.htm.网站上读到全文及她的分析。

[52] 你可以去美国教育部，教育科学研究院，国家教育统计中心，国家教育进步评估（National Assessment of Education Progress, NAEP）的网址http://nces.ed.gov/nations reportcard/naepdata点下Main NDE（NAEP Data Explorer），就会看到我在这一章中所有引用的NAEP 数据，这些数据来自二○一一年写作评估，这资料在二○一五年十一月仍可查到。

[53] Judy Willis, “The Gully in the ‘Brain Glitch’ Theory,” Educational Leadership, volume 64, pp. 68–73, 2007. The quotation comes from p. 72.

[54] Mark Bauerlein and Sandra Stotsky, “Why Johnny Won't Read,” Washington Post, January 25, 2005, p. A15.

[55] 请看William Killgore、Mika Oki和Deborah Yurgelun-Todd的「大脑发展上杏仁核对情绪面孔反应的性别改变」（Sex-Specific Developmental Changes in Amygdala Responses to Affective Faces），二○○一年Neuro-Report第十二卷四二七─四三三页；William Killgore和Deborah Yurgelun-Todd的「在看到情绪面孔时杏仁核活化的性别差异」（Sex Differences in Amygdala Activation During the Perception of Facial Affect），二○○一年Neuro- Report第十二卷，二五四三─二五四七页。和William Killgore和Deborah Yurgelun-Todd的「在看到情绪面孔时，前额叶皮质和杏仁核侧化上跟性有关的发展差异」（Sex-Related Developmental Differences in the Lateralized Activation of the Prefrontal Cortex and Amygdala During Perception of Facial Affect），二○○四年Perceptual and Motor Skills第九九卷，三七一─三九一页。Dr. Yurgelun-Todd博士现在改到犹他大学（University of Utah）任教。

[56] 北美洲各地都有「雪就是应该留在地上」（引申不应拿来打雪球战）的政策，例如加拿大、安大略省、约克学区、牵牛花公立学校（Morning Glory Public School of the York Region District School Board）就提醒学生「雪无论何时都应该在地上而不在学生手上」，这条规则自二○一三年十二月起就刊登在学校的报纸上，也公布在网路上，www.yrdsb.ca/schools/morningglory.ps/NewsEvents /Documents/Dec%202013%20vol%201%20mgps.pdf。

[57] 请见Stephanie Martinez「一个发狂的系统：一个零容忍政策如何影响学校？」（A System Gone Berserk: How Are Zero-Tolerance Policies Really Affecting Schools?）刊登在《防止学校失败》（Preventing School Failure）第五三卷一五三─一五八页，二○○九年；以及Russell Skiba和Kimberly Knesting的「零容忍，零证据：学校管教方式的分析」（Zero Tolerance, Zero Evidence: An Analysis of School Disciplinary Practice），二○○一年New Directions for Youth Development九二期，一七─四三页。

[58] Margaret Shih, Todd Pittinsky, and Nalini Ambady, “Stereotype Susceptibility: Identity Salience and Shifts in Quantitative Performance,” Psychological Science, volume 10, pp. 80–83, 1999.

[59] 普林斯顿的心理学家Joel Cooper and Kimberlee Weaver在他们合著的Gender and Computers: Understanding the digital divide (Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2003)中，描述了许多年轻女孩在数学和科学测验中的表现会低于预期，尤其在提醒她们性别刻板印象之后。特别参见chapter 3, “The Social Context of Computing” 和chapter 5, “A Threat in the Air.” 两位作者同时描述月在单一性别班级中的女孩平均的表现有多好，部分原因可能是不再有刻板印象的威胁，参见chapter 7, “Solutions: Single-sex schools and classrooms?”

[60] Roy Baumeister and colleagues , “Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles?” Psychological Science in the Public Interest, volume 4, pp. 1–44, 2003.

[61] Martinez, “A System Gone Berserk”; Skiba and Knesting, “Zero Tolerance, Zero Evidence,” both cited above.

[62] 在这个主题经典的学术论文为 “The Classroom Avenger”。作者为James McGee及Caren DeBernardo，最初发表在The Forensic Examiner, vol. 8, May-June 1999。两位作者都是Sheppard Pratt精神病院的医生。这篇论文可以免费在Sheppard Pratt医院的网站http://www.sheppardpratt.org/Documents/classavenger.pdf上看到。

[63] Peter Langman, “School Shooters: The Warning Signs,” Forensic Digest, Winter-Spring 2012.

[64] 这一段中所引用的话全来自Dave Cullen's Columbine (New York: Twelve, 2010), pp. 307–308.

[65] Cullen, Columbine, p. 309.

[66] “Court Found Cho Mentally Ill,” The Smoking Gun, www.thesmokinggun.com/file/court-found-cho-mentally-ill.

[67] Michael Luo, “U.S. Rules Made Killer Ineligible to Purchase Gun,” New York Times, April 21, 2007.

[68] 这一段中所引用的话全来自二○○七年四月十八日《纽约时报》所刊登Manny Fernandez和Marc Santora的「枪手显现愤怒的信号」（Gunman Showed Signs of Anger）。

[69] 这段中二个引用的话来自二○○七年八月三十日《纽约时报》所刊登Ian Urbina的「维琴尼亚理工学院因射击案而被批评」（Virginia Tech Criticized for Actions in Shooting）。

[70] Liz Klimas, “10-Year-Old Suspended for an Imaginary Weapon,” The Blaze, December 9, 2013, www.theblaze.com/stories/2013/12/09/10-year-old-suspended-for-shooting-imaginary-bow-and-arrow.

[71] Donna St. George, “Anne Arundel Officials Decline to Clear Record of Second-Grader Who Made ‘Pastry Gun,’” Washington Post, May 15, 2013.

[72] 这个例子来自Paul Rosenzweig和Trent England 在二○○四年八月五日所写的「普通常识的零容忍」（Zero Tolerance for Common Sense），可见传承基金会（Heritage Foundation）网站www.heritage.org/research/commentary/2004 /08/zero-tolerance-for-common-sense。

[73] 拉丁原文为Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret，摘自Epistles of Horace卷一 §十第二四行。

第三章　第二个因素：电玩游戏

[1] 我在本书中提到的global Halo（《最后一战》）比赛是在二○○五年五月份举办的，虽然主办者要求参与者必须十八岁以上才能进入，但是会场并无任何机制来执行这个规定。电玩游戏竞赛现在叫做「电子运动」（e-sports），从二○○五年就有了，《纽约时报》二○一四年八月三十日有篇文章「电子运动吸引了真正的人群和大量的金钱」（In E-sports, Video Gamers Draw Real Crowds and Big Money），记者Nick Wingfield把这个竞赛形容为Defense of the Ancients (DOTA) 竞赛，是两队电玩专家在西雅图篮球场比赛，奖金高达一千一百万美元，现场观赛的门票很贵但仍有一万一千人去观赛。芝加哥的Robert Morris大学提供赢家五十万美金的奖学金，就像运动员的奖学金一样，现在美国的长春藤盟校（Ivy League）也提供校际比赛。Wingfield的文章可在网路上下载，www.nytimes.com/2014/08/31/technology/esports-explosion- brings-opportunity-riches-for-video-gamers.html。

[2] John S. Watson, “Memory and ‘Contingency Analysis’ in Infant Learning,” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, volume 13, pp. 55–76, 1967.

[3] Henry Gleitman, Psychology (New York: W. W. Norton, 1980), p. 147.

[4] 尼采自己在他写自由意志（free spirit）时特别强调这一点，他的free spirit是指一个人受他自己意志去做，不受其他考量的干扰「这个人有很多直觉反应，对战争、对胜利的直觉，这些直觉必须超越其他的，如快乐的直觉，一个自由的人，更重要的是他的心智、精神变得自由了──踩着小商人、基督徒、牛、女人、英国人和其他民主人士的大梦」这是我的翻译，德文的原文是“Freiheit bedeutet, daß die männlichen, die kriegs-und siegsfrohen Instinkte die Herrschaft haben über andre Instinkte, zum Beispiel über die des »Glücks.” Der freigewordne Mensch, um wie viel mehr der freige- wordne Geist, tritt mit Füßen auf die verächtliche Art von Wohlbe- finden, von dem Krämer, Christen, Kühe, Weiber, Engländer und andre Demokraten träumen。取自尼采一八八九年的《偶像的黄昏》（Götzen-Dämmerung）第三八段，很容易在网站上找到，例如www.textlog.de /8119.html。

[5] 引自section 349 of Nietzsche's The Will to Power, 译者为Walter Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale (New York: Vintage Books, 1968), p. 191.

[6] 这些例子来自Mike Musgrove在《华盛顿邮报》（Washington Post）上的文章 “Family Game Night, version 2.0,” March 4, 2007, pp. F1, F4.

[7] 看这个广告最简单的方法是去YouTube，在搜寻的地方打「Greatness Awaits, PS4」。

[8] Alan Castel, Jay Pratt, and Emily Drummond, “The Effects of Action Video Game Experience on the Time Course of Inhibition of Return and the Efficiency of Visual Search,” Acta Psychologica, volume 119, pp. 217–230, 2005.

[9] Edward Swing和他同事的「暴露在电视和电玩游戏之下和注意力发展的问题」（Television and Video Game Exposure and the Development of Attention Problems），二○一○年刊登在《小儿科期刊》（Pediatrics）第一二六卷，二一四─二二一页。也请看Douglas Gentile和他同事合著的「玩电玩游戏，注意力问题和冲动性：来自双向因果关系的证据」（Video Game Playing, Attention Problems, and Impulsiveness: Evidence of Bidirectional Causality）刊登在二○一二年Psychology of Popular Media Culture卷一，六二─七○页。

[10] Jay Hull, Ana Draghici, and James Sargent, “A Longitudinal Study of Risk-Glorifying Video Games and Reckless Driving,” Psychology of Popular Media Culture, volume 1, pp. 244–253, 2012.

[11] Kathleen Beullens and Jan Van den Bulck, “Predicting Young Drivers’ Car Crashes: Music Video Viewing and the Playing of Driving Games. Results from a Prospective Cohort Study,” Media Psychology, volume 16, issue 1, 2013.

[12] Stervo Mario和他的同事合著的「年轻男性打电玩频率跟腹部脂肪堆积和高糖、低纤饮食的关系」（Frequent Video-Game Playing in Young Males is Associated with Central Adiposity and High-Sugar, Low-Fibre Dietary Consumption），二○一四年于Eating and Weight Disorders卷一九，五一五─五二○页。请看Catherine Berkey和她的同事合著的「前青春期和青春期男生和女生在活动、饮食和体重改变的长期追踪研究」（Activity, Dietary Intake, and Weight Changes in a Longitudinal Study of Preadolescent and Adolescent Boys and Girls），二○○○年刊登在Pediatrics期刊，一○五卷e五六页。以及Elizabeth Vandewater和她同事合著的「看电视和打电动游戏与肥胖症及活动程度的关系」（Linking Obesity and Activity Level with Children's Television and Video Game Use），二○○四年《青少年期刊》（Journal of Adolescence）二七卷七一─八五页。

[13] Jean-Philippe Chaput和他同事合著的「青少年打电玩会增加食量：一个随机的交叉研究」（Video Game Playing Increases Food Intake in Adolescents: A Randomized Crossover Study），二○一一年American Journal of Clinical Nutrition，九三卷，一一九六─一二○三页。

[14] Megan Mathers and colleagues, “Electronic Media Use and Adolescent Health and Well-Being: Cross-Sectional Community Study,” Academic Pediatrics, volume 9, pp. 307–314, 2009.

[15] Brock Bastian, Jolanda Jetten, and Helena Radke, “Cyber-Dehumanization: Violent Video Game Play Diminishes Our Humanity,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, volume 48, pp. 486–491, 2012. See also Tobias Greitemeyer and Neil McLatchie, “Denying Humanness to Others: A Newly Discovered Mechanism by Which Violent Video Games Increase Aggressive Behavior,” Psychological Science, volume 22, pp. 659–665, 2011.

[16] Jay Hull and colleagues, “A Longitudinal Study of Risk-Glorifying Video Games and Behavioral Deviance,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, volume 107, pp. 300–325, 2014.

[17] Julia Fischer and colleagues, “The Delinquent Media Effect: Delinquency-Reinforcing Video Games Increase Players’ Attitudinal and Behavioral Inclination Toward Delinquent Behavior,” Psychology of Popular Media Culture, volume 1, pp. 201–205, 2012. See also Peter Holtz and Markus Appel, “Internet Use and Video Gaming Predict Problem Behavior in Early Adolescence,” Journal of Adolescence, volume 34, pp. 49–58, 2011.

[18] Alessandro Gabbiadini and colleagues, “Interactive Effect of Moral Disengagement and Violent Video Games on Self-Control, Cheating, and Aggression,” Social Psychological and Personality Science, volume 5, pp. 451–458, 2014.

[19] Mirko Pawlikowski and Matthias Brand, “Excessive Internet Gaming and Decision Making: Do Excessive World of Warcraft Players Have Problems in Decision Making Under Risky Conditions?” Psychiatry Research, volume 188, pp. 428–433, 2011.

[20] Jih-Hsuan Lin, “Do Video Games Exert Stronger Effects on Aggression Than Film? The Role of Media Interactivity and Identification on the Association of Violent Content and Aggressive Outcomes,” Computers in Human Behavior, volume 29, pp. 535–543, 2013.

[21] Marc Sestir and Bruce Bartholow, “Violent and Nonviolent Video Games Produce Opposing Effects on Aggressive and Prosocial Outcomes,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, volume 46, pp. 934–942, 2010. See also Muniba Saleem, Craig Anderson, and Douglas Gentile, “Effects of Prosocial, Neutral, and Violent Video Games on College Students’ Affect,” Aggressive Behavior, volume 38, pp. 263–271, 2012.

[22] Bruce Bartholow and colleagues, “Chronic Violent Video Game Exposure and Desensitization to Violence: Behavioral and Event-Related Brain Potential Data,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, volume 42, pp. 532–539, 2006. See also Tom Hummer and colleagues, “Short-Term Violent Video Game Play by Adolescents Alters Prefrontal Activity During Cognitive Inhibition,” Media Psychology, volume 13, pp. 136–154, 2010.

[23] Christopher Barlett and Christopher Rodeheffer, “Effects of Realism on Extended Violent and Nonviolent Video Game Play on Aggressive Thoughts, Feelings, and Physiological Arousal,” Aggressive Behavior, volume 35, pp. 213–224, 2009.

[24] Craig Anderson and colleagues, “Violent Video Game Effects on Aggression, Empathy, and Prosocial Behavior in Eastern and Western Countries: A Meta-Analytic Review,” Psychological Bulletin, volume 136, pp. 151–173, 2010. For a thoughtful comment on this paper─observing that some doubters will never be persuaded, no matter how strong the evidence─see L. Rowell Huesmann, “Nailing the Coffin Shut on Doubts That Violent Video Games Stimulate Aggression: Comment on Anderson et al. 2010,” Psychological Bulletin, volume 136, pp. 179–181, 2010.

[25] See Craig Anderson, “Violent Video Games: Myths, Facts, and Unanswered Questions,” Psychological Science Agenda, volume 16, October 2003.

[26] Alito法官的完整意见书可在美国最高法院网站：www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/10pdf/08-1448.pdf找到，书中所引用的这段来自意见书的第十二和十四页。

[27] 这段所引用的句子来自Patrick Welsh在《华盛顿邮报》二○○四年十二月五日的文章：「这不是竞赛，男孩会长大成男人，但是他们还是会选择电玩游戏」（It's No Contest; Boys Will Be Men, and They’ll Still Choose Video Games）。

[28] 你可上网看安得生教授的纲要：Iowa State University of Science and Technology, Department of Psychology, www.psychology.iastate.edu/faculty/caa/VG_recommendations.html.

[29] Welsh, “It's No Contest,” p. B1.

[30] Tamar Lewin, “At Colleges, Women Are Leaving Men in the Dust,” New York Times, July 9, 2006, pp. A1, A18, A19.

[31] Lewin, “At Colleges,” pp. A18, A19.

[32] Craig Anderson, Douglas Gentile, and Katherine Buckley, Violent Video Game Effects on Children and Adolescents (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 66.

[33] David Riley, “Average Time Spent Playing Games on Mobile Devices Has Increased 57 Percent Since 2012,” January 27 2015, online at NPD Group, www.npd.com.

[34] 我把AAP的守则上传到：www.leonardsax .com/guidelines.pdf，这个守则并没有特别说明怎么去用监控的软体，但是明确建议父母不让孩子在没人监督之下去上网，除非你能亲自监督到你孩子在网上所做的每一件事情，唯一能防止他们随意上网浏览的方法就是安装一种监督的软体，同时伴随着父母亲的控制。

第四章　第三个因素：ＡＤＨＤ的药物

[1] “National Institute of Mental Health Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD Follow-up: Changes in Effectiveness and Growth After the End of Treatment,” Pediatrics, volume 113, pp. 762–769, 2004. See also Stephen Faraone and colleagues, “Effects of Lisdexamfetamine Dimesylate [Vyvanse] Treatment for ADHD on Growth,” Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, volume 49, pp. 24–32, 2010.

[2] Peter Breggin博士是认为注意力缺失过动症是药厂用来卖药的幌子的作家之一，参见他的著作Talking Back to Ritalin: What Doctors Aren't Telling You About Stimulants for Children (Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1998)；以及The Ritalin Fact Book: What Your Doctor Won't Tell You (New York: Perseus, 2002)。

[3] American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (Washington, DC: APA, 2013), p. 59. (DSM-5 hereafter.)

[4] 如我在我的书《教养，你可以做得更好》（远流出版）中指出，一九七九年时，只有1.2%的美国孩子，即一千个人中有十二个，被诊断为我们现在称之为ADHD的孩子，那个时候叫做「童年期动感过度反应症」（hyperkinetic reaction of childhood），男女生的比例为二比一或更多，所以我们可以推测在一九七九年时应该是1.6%的男生和0.8%的女生（这样得出的平均值为1.2%）。到二○一三年时，美国疾病控制和预防中心（Centers for Disease Control and Prevention）宣布美国高中男生有20%被诊断为ADHD，几乎是一九七九年的十倍，从1.6%涨到20%，请看《教养，你可以做得更好》第三章。

[5] The phrase “medicate young minds” is borrowed from Elizabeth Roberts's article, “A Rush to Medicate Young Minds,” Washington Post, October 8, 2006, p. B7.

[6] DSM-5对对立反抗症（313.81, p. 462）的定义包括：
• 常常跟大人争辨
• 故意违反或拒绝去做有权力人士的要求
• 常常故意去惹恼别人

[7] Jennifer Harris, Psychotherapy Networker, February 2006, quoted in Roberts's article, “A Rush to Medicate Young Minds.”

[8] Leonard Sax and Kathleen Kautz, “Who First Suggests the Diagnosis of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder? A Survey of Primary-Care Pediatricians, Family Physicians, and Child Psychiatrists,” Annals of Family Medicine, volume 1, pp. 171–174, 2003.

[9] Gabrieli医生的报告题目是「教育大脑」（Educating the Brain），你可以上Fleetwood Onsite Conference Recording的网站去买这份光碟，www.fleetwoodonsite .com在搜索的地方打入Gabrieli这个字就会看到，一片光碟为美金十五元。

[10] 这章节大部分的资料，尤其是注释，是来自我的书《教养，你可以做得更好》里的讨论。

[11] 下面是Carlezon在这个题目上的三篇论文：
• 「早期被喂食派醋甲酯（利他能）老鼠的长期行为效果」（Enduring Behavioral Effects of Early Exposure to Methylphe- nidate in Rats）刊登在二○○三年《生物精神医学》（Biological Psychiatry）第五四卷，一三三○─一三三七页。
•「了解早期服用精神药物的神经生物后果」（Understanding the Neurobiological Consequences of Early Exposure to Psychotropic Drugs）刊登在二○○四年《神经药物学》（Neuropharmacology）四七卷附件一，四七─六○页。
• 「早期暴露在派醋甲酯会降低老鼠大脑刺激回馈所引发古柯碱的增强效果」（Early Developmental Exposure to Methylphenidate Reduces Cocaine-Induced Potentiation of Brain Stimulation Reward in Rats）二○○五年《生物精神医学》（Biological Psychiatry）五七卷一二○─一二五页。

[12] 很多学术研究都显现派醋甲酯和安非他命──这两个是药物的主要成分──会对发展中的大脑多巴胺感受体聚集的地方有长期的改变，这个干扰效应在伏隔核的地方最大，这不令人惊奇，因为伏隔核正是多巴胺感受体最密集的地方，密西根大学的Terry Robinson和Bryan Kolb是最早发现低剂的安非他命会导致伏隔核神经细胞受损的几个人之一，他们第一次把这发现写在「使用安非他命所导致的伏隔核和前额叶皮质神经细胞持久的结构改变」（Persistent Structural Modifications in Nucleus Accumbens and Prefrontal Cortex Neurons Produced by Previous Experiences with Amphetamine）刊登在《神经科学期刊》（Journal of Neuroscience）一九九七年一七卷八四九一─八四九七页。They later reviewed this emerging field in their article “Structural Plasticity Associated with Exposure to Drugs of Abuse,” Neuropharmacology, volume 47, pp. 33–46, 2004. See also Claire Advokat, “Literature Review: Update on Amphetamine Neurotoxicity and Its Relevance to the Treatment of ADHD,” Journal of Attention Disorders, volume 11, pp. 8–16, 2007. Other relevant articles include (in alphabetical order):
• Esther Gramage and colleagues, “Periadolescent Amphetamine Treatment Causes Transient Cognitive Disruptions and Long-Term Changes in Hippocampal LTP,” Addiction Biology, volume 18, pp. 19–29, 2013.
• Rochellys D. Heijtz, Bryan Kolb, and Hans Forssberg, “Can a Therapeutic Dose of Amphetamine During Pre-adolescence Modify the Pattern of Synaptic Organization in the Brain?” European Journal of Neuroscience, volume 18, pp. 3394–3399, 2003.
• Yong Li and Julie Kauer, “Repeated Exposure to Amphetamine Disrupts Dopaminergic Modulation of Excitatory Synaptic Plasticity and Neurotransmission in Nucleus Accumbens,” Synapse, volume 51, pp. 1–10, 2004.
• Manuel Mameli and Christian Luscher, “Synaptic Plasticity and Addiction: Learning Mechanisms Gone Awry,” Neuropharmacology, volume 61, pp. 1052–1059, 2011.
• Shao-Pii Onn and Anthony Grace, “Amphetamine Withdrawal Alters Bistable States and Cellular Coupling in Rat Prefrontal Cortex and Nucleus Accumbens Neurons Recorded in Vivo,” Journal of Neuroscience, volume 20, pp. 2332–2345, 2000.
• Margery Pardey and colleagues, “Long-Term Effects of Chronic Oral Ritalin Administration on Cognitive and Neural Development in Adolescent Wistar Kyoto Rats,” Brain Sciences, volume 2, pp. 375–404, 2012.
• Scott Russo and colleagues, “The Addicted Synapse: Mechanisms of Synaptic and Structural Plasticity in the Nucleus Accumbens,” Trends in Neuroscience, volume 33, pp. 267–276, 2010.
• Louk J. Vanderschuren和他的同事合著的论文「老鼠只要暴露在安非他命一次就足以引发长效的行为，神经内分泌和神经化学上的敏感度」（A Single Exposure to Amphetamine Is Sufficient to Induce Long-term Behavioral, Neuroendocrine, and Neurochemical Sensitization in Rats）刊登在一九九九年的《神经科学期刊》（Journal of Neuroscience）第一九卷，九五七九─九五八六页。若想了解神经化学背后的机制、兴奋型处方药物和古柯碱的异同，以及服用这种药物的长期风险，请看Heinz Steiner和Vincent Van Waes合著的「与上瘾有关的基因调控：暴露在认知强化物与其他兴奋剂的风险」（Addiction-Related Gene Regulation: Risks of Exposure to Cognitive Enhancers vs. Other Psychostimulants）发表在二○一三年Progress in Neurobiology第一○○卷六○─八○页。

[13] 现在大家都同意派醋甲酯的作用是增加突触多巴胺的活化，请看Nora Volkow和她同事合著的「派醋甲酯在大脑多巴胺上效用的影像证据：治疗ADHD的新模式」（Imaging the Effects of Methylphenidate on Brain Dopamine: New Model on Its Therapeutic Actions for Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder）刊登在二○○五年的《生物的精神医学》（Biological Psychiatry）五七卷一四一○─一四一五页。人们很早也知道安非他命是模仿多巴胺在大脑的活动，而多巴胺系统正是ADHD的关键，请看James Swanson和他同事合写的「注意力缺失症中的多巴胺和麸胺酸」（Dopamine and Glutamate in Attention Deficit Disorder）收录在Werner Schmidt和Maarten Reith编辑、二○○五年出版的《精神疾病中的多巴胺和麸胺酸》（Dopamine and Glutamate in Psychiatric Disorders）一书中的二九三─三一五页。

[14] 想知道伏隔核在动机上所扮演的关键角色的人，请看Carlezon医生的论文「报酬和厌恶的生物基质：伏隔核活化的假设」（Biological Substrates of Reward and Aversion: A Nucleus Accumbens Activity Hypothesis）刊登在二○○九年的《神经药物学》（Neuropharmacology）五六卷附件一，一二二─一三二页。

[15] 参见Elseline Hoekzema and colleagues, “Stimulant Drugs Trigger Transient Volumetric Changes in the Human Ventral Striatum,” Brain Structure and Function, volume 219, pp. 23–34, 2013, especially figures 2 and 3. See also Monica Franco Emch, “Ventro-Striatal / Nucleus Accumbens Alterations in Adult ADHD: Effects of Pharmacological Treatment: A Neuroimaging Region of Interest Study,” Universitat Pompeu Fabra, 2015, especially figure 2. The full text is online at http://repositori.upf.edu/bitstream/handle/10230/24651/Franco_2015.pdf.

[16] 参见Scott Mackey and colleagues, “A Voxel-Based Morphometry Study of Young Occasional Users of Amphetamine-Type Stimulants and Cocaine,” Drug and Alcohol Dependence, volume 135, pp. 104–111, 2014.

[17] L. J. Seidman and colleagues, “Dorsolateral Prefrontal and Anterior Cingulate Cortex Volumetric Abnormalities in Adults with Attention Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder Identified by Magnetic Resonance Imaging,” Biological Psychiatry, volume 60, pp. 1071–1080, 2006. See also Hoekzema and colleagues, “Stimulant Drugs,” and Emch, “Ventro-Striatal / Nucleus Accumbens Alterations,” both cited above.

[18] 参见Nicolas Carriere and colleagues, “Apathy in Parkinson's Disease Is Associated with Nucleus Accumbens Atrophy: A Magnetic Resonance Imaging Shape Analysis,” Movement Disorders, volume 29, pp. 897–903, 2014. See also Robert Paul and colleagues, “Apathy Is Associated with Volume of the Nucleus Accumbens in Patients Infected with HIV,” Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, volume 17, pp. 167–171, 2005.

[19] 有关注意力缺失过动症神经基质的性别差异概论，请参见我的论文“The Diagnosis and Treatment of ADHD in Women,” Female Patient, volume 29, pp. 29–34, November 2004. 并参见Julia Rucklidge, “Gender Differences in Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder,” Psychiatric Clinics of North America, volume 33, pp. 357–373, 2010.

[21] Leonard Sax, “The Feminization of American Culture: How Modern Chemicals May Be Changing American Biology,” The World & I, pp. 243–261, October 2001.

第五章　第四个因素：内分泌干扰物质

[1] David Fahrenthold, “Male Bass Across Region Found to Be Bearing Eggs: Pollution Concerns Arise in Drinking-Water Source,” Washington Post, September 6, 2006, pp. A1, A8.

[2] Fahrenthold, “Male Bass Across Region Found to Be Bearing Eggs.”

[3] 请看Blazer博士和Jo Ellen Hinck还有其他人合著的「一九九五─二○○四年间美国河流中广泛发生的黑鲈鱼双性交配」（Widespread Occurrence of Intersex in Black Basses (Micropterus species) from US Rivers, 1995–2004）刊登在二○○九年的Aquatic Toxicology期刊，九五卷六○─七○页。若想知道波多马克河最新的资料，请见Blazer博士和他同事合著的「波多马克河谷小口黑鲈繁殖内分泌的干扰：生物效应的时间和空间比较」（Reproductive Endocrine Disruption in Smallmouth Bass (Micropterus dolomieu) in the Potomac River Basin: Spatial and Temporal Comparisons of Biological Effects）刊登在二○一二年Environmental Monitoring and Assessment期刊，一八四卷四三○九─四三三四页，这些学者注意到双性交配和工厂污水、农业以及其他人造杀虫剂和化学物品的迳流有很强的关联，不过使这些雄鱼雌性化的化学分子现在还不清楚。

[4] Laura Sessions Stepp, “Cupid's Broken Arrow: Performance Anxiety and Substance Abuse Figure into the Increase in Reports of Impotence on Campus,” Washington Post, May 7, 2006.

[5] 引自Dr. Brodie and Dr. Pryor both come from Stepp, “Cupid's Broken Arrow,” 同前。

[6] 跟野生动物因杀虫剂所导致的雌性化议题可参考Heinz-R. Köhler和Rita Triebskorn合著的「杀虫剂对野生动物生态毒理学，我们可以把这效果追踪到群体的程度和之外吗？」（Wildlife Ecotoxicology of Pesticides: Can We Track Effects to the Population Level and Beyond）发表在《科学》期刊三四一卷七五九─七六五页，下面是我所引用的几个二○一三年的特别案例：
• 华盛顿州和爱达荷州：James Nagler和他的同事检查华盛顿州和爱达荷州哥伦比亚河流域，发现许多看起来像雌鱼的鱼，捞起来做ＤＮＡ检验时发现其实是雄鱼。这些鱼已经完全雌性化了。牠们看起来像雌性，牠们产卵而不产精子，但是牠们在基因上是雄性，参见James Nagler and colleagues, “High Incidence of a Male-Specific Genetic Marker in Phenotypic Female Chinook Salmon from the Columbia River,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 109, pp. 67–69, 2001.
• 佛罗里达州：美国渔业与野生动物管理署的Louis Guillette和他的同事发现佛罗里达州中部雄性鳄鱼的睾丸萎缩。这些鳄鱼血液中的雄性荷尔蒙也异常的少，但是雌性荷尔蒙却不正常的高。同样的，在阿波卜卡湖附近，离奥兰多市不远的野生动物保护区中的雄性蟒蛇快要绝种了，一部分原因是这些雄蟒蛇已不能再制造精子了。这个雄蟒蛇的去男性化和水池里塑胶中含的邻苯二甲酸盐与丙二酚有关。参见Louis J. Guillette Jr. and colleagues, “Developmental Abnormalities of the Gonad and Abnormal Sex Hormone Concentrations in Juvenile Alligators from Contaminated and Control Lakes in Florida,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 102, pp. 680–688, 1994. 并参见Charles F. Facemire, Timothy S. Gross, and Louis J. Guillette Jr., “Reproductive Impairment in the Florida Panther,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 103, Supplement 4, pp. 79–86, 1995.
• 五大湖区: Theo Colborn, Frederick vom Saal, and Ana Soto, “Developmental Effects of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals in Wildlife and Humans,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 101, pp. 378–384, 1993.
• 阿拉斯加：Kurunthachalam Kannan, Se Hun Yun, and Thomas J. Evans, “Chlorinated, Brominated, and Perfluorinated Contaminants in Livers of Polar Bears from Alaska,” Environmental Science and Technology, volume 39, pp. 9057–9063, 2005.
• 英国：Susan Jobling和她的同事合著「野外鱼类广泛的性别干扰现象」（Widespread Sexual Disruption in Wild Fish）刊登在一九九八年的Environmental Science and Technology三二卷二四九八─二五○六页。
• 格棱兰：Christian Sonne和同事合著的「内分泌干扰物可能会降低东格棱兰北极熊的性器官大小」（Xenoendocrine Pollutants May Reduce Size of Sexual Organs in East Greenland Polar Bears (Ursus maritimus)）刊登在二○○六年Environmental Science and Technology四○卷，五六六八─五六七四页。

[7] Carmen Saenz de Rodriguez, Alfred Bongiovanni, and Lillian Conde de Borrego, “An Epidemic of Precocious Development in Puerto Rican Children,” Journal of Pediatrics, volume 107, pp. 393–396, 1985.

[8] Lambertina Freni-Titulaer and colleagues, “Premature Thelarche in Puerto Rico: A Search for Environmental Factors,” Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine (now known as JAMA Pediatrics), volume 140, pp. 1263–1267, 1986.

[9] 参见Guillette and colleagues, “Developmental Abnormalities of the Gonad and Abnormal Sex Hormone Concentrations,” 同前. 并参见Charles F. Facemire and colleagues, “Reproductive Impairment in the Florida Panther,” 同前。

[10] 聚对苯二甲酸乙二酯（PET）在化学上与聚乙烯不一样，然而，一个由PET所制造的瓶子可能会使聚乙烯渗进瓶中的饮料内，在二○一○年我就唤起学者对此的注意，请看我的论文「聚对苯二甲酸乙二酯可能会造成内分泌失调」（Polyethylene Terephthalate May Yield Endocrine Disruptors）刊登在二○一○年的Environmental Health Perspectives一一八卷四四五─四四八页，整篇论文在www.leonardsax.com/pet.pdf，我的文章引发Ralph Vasami寄给编辑一封愤怒的信。这个人是PET Resin Association，代表PET制造商的团体的执行干事，他的信和我的回答都以「PET和内分泌失调」为题目，都刊登在二○一○年的Environmental Health Perspectives一一八卷A一九六─A一九七页。你也可以在网上看Vasami先生的信和我的回答： www.leonardsax.com/wordpress/wp -content/uploads/2015/01/PET-response.pdf，也请参考Chun Yang和同事的「大部分的塑胶产品会释出雌激素化学：一个可以被解决的潜在健康问题」（Most Plastic Products Release Estrogenic Chemicals: A Potential Health Problem That Can Be Solved）刊登在二○一一年Environmental Health Perspectives一一九卷九八九─九九六页；Martin Wagner和Jörg Oehlmann的「瓶装矿泉水的内分泌干扰物：E-screen中的雌激素活动」（Endocrine Disruptors in Bottled Mineral Water: Estrogenic Activity in the E-screen）刊登在二○一一年Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology一二七卷一二八─一三五页。以及Syam Andra和同事合著的「瓶装水所共同渗出的溴化物和锑」（Co-leaching of Brominated Compounds and Antimony from Bottled Water）刊登在二○一二年Environment International三八卷四五─五三页。

[11] Ivelisse Colon and colleagues, “Identification of Phthalate Esters in the Serum of Young Puerto Rican Girls with Premature Breast Development,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 108, pp. 895–900, 2000.

[12] Danielle Bodicoat and colleagues, “Timing of Pubertal Stages and Breast Cancer Risk: The Breakthrough Generations Study,” Breast Cancer Research, volume 16, 2014, online at www.breast-cancer-research.com/content/16/1/R18.

[13] Paul Kaplowitz and Sharon Oberfield, “Reexamination of the Age Limit for Defining When Puberty Is Precocious in Girls in the United States: Implications for Evaluation and Treatment,” Pediatrics, volume 104, pp. 936–941, 1999.

[14] 例如参见Jonathan Roy and colleagues, “Estrogen-like Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals Affecting Puberty in Humans─A Review,” Medical Science Review, volume 15, pp. 137–145, 2009. See also Samim Ozen and Sukran Darcan, “Effects of Environmental Endocrine Disruptors on Pubertal Development,” Journal of Clinical Research in Pediatric Endocrinology, volume 3, pp. 1–6, 2011.

[15] Sandra Steingraber, The Falling Age of Puberty in U.S. Girls: What We Know, What We Need to Know (San Francisco: Breast Cancer Fund, 2007).

[16] 关于安杀番这个杀虫剂对青少年的影响，请看Kate Ramsayer的「青春期变慢？杀虫剂可能延缓了男孩的发展」（Slowing puberty? Pesticide may hinder development in boys）刊登在《科学新闻》（Science News）二○○三年一六四卷三七二页。这篇报导是根据Habibullah Saiyed和同事合著的「安杀番在男性生殖发展上的效应」（Effect of endosulfan on male reproductive development）的论文所写成，原文刊登在二○○三年的Environmental Health Perspectives第一一一卷一九五八─一九六二页。也请看R. Sebastian和S. C. Raghavan合著的「暴露在安杀番下会因睾丸萎缩精子数量减少而造成男性不孕症」（Exposure to endosulfan can result in male infertility due to testicular atrophy and reduced sperm count）刊登在二○一五年的Cell Death Discovery，全篇论文可在网上http://www.nature.com /articles/cddiscovery201520找到关于安杀番的制造，根据美国环保署（EPA）二○○二年的报告，美国每天用安杀番的量是一百三十八万磅，用的最多的是棉花、哈密瓜、蕃茄和马铃薯，这些数字来自安杀番重新登记决定报告的第一页，二○○二年十一月EPA公布，全份报告在网站http://archive.epa.gov/pesticides/reregistration/web /pdf/endosulfan_red.pdf。

[17] 请看Marla Cone的文章「环保署禁用在小黄瓜和其他蔬菜上的农药」（EPA Bans Pesticide Found on Cu- cumbers and Other Vegetables）最初发表在二○一○年六月十四日的Daily Green，当Daily Green被Good Housekeeping杂志在二○一三年买去后，大部分原来刊登在Daily Green的文章被删除了，所以在它的新家网站上找不到了，我找到Marla Cone的文章是在www.highstrangeness. tv/0–10346-epa-bans-pesticide-found-on-cucumbers-and-other -vegetables.html（二○一五年十月十日仍可找到）。

[18] Dale Kemery, “EPA Moves to Terminate All Uses of Insecticide Endosulfan to Protect Health of Farmworkers and Wildlife,” June 9, 2010, online at US Environmental Protection Agency, http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/eeffe922a687433c85257359003f5340/44c035d59d5e6d8f8525773c0072f26b!opendocument.

[19] 我第一次看到这个研究是在「食器中所用的化学物质会伤害大脑发育」（Chemical Used in Food Containers Disrupts Brain Development），二○○五年十二月三日的Science Daily杂志，这篇文章是根据Dr. Scott Belcher和他同事合著的一篇论文而来：(1)「老鼠小脑皮质上，雌激素所导致的快速细胞间激酶讯号来源：环境雌激素双酚A对非基因活化剂和内分泌的干扰活动」（Ontogeny of Rapid Estrogen-Mediated Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase Signaling in the Rat Cerebellar Cortex: Potent Nongenomic Agonist and Endocrine Disrupting Activity of the Xenoestrogen Bisphenol A）刊登在二○○五年《内分泌学》（Endocrinology）一四六卷五三八八─五三九六页。(2)「小脑颗粒细胞跟G蛋白质和蛋白激酶机制和细胞间蛋白质监酸酶2A活化的快速细胞间激酶讯号调控雌激素」（Rapid Estrogenic Regulation of Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase 1/2 Signaling in Cerebellar Granule Cells Involves a G Protein- and Protein Kinase A-dependent Mechanism and Intracellular Activation of Protein Phosphatase 2A）二○○五年《内分泌学》一四六卷五三九七─五四○六页。

[20] Walter Adriani and colleagues, “Altered Profiles of Spontaneous Novelty Seeking, Impulsive Behavior, and Response to D-Amphetamine in Rats Perinatally Exposed to Bisphenol A,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 111, pp. 395–401, 2003.

[21] Yoshinori Masuo and Masami Ishido, “Neurotoxicity of Endocrine Disruptors: Possible Involvement in Brain Development and Neurodegeneration,” Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, volume 14, pp. 346–369, 2011.

[22] Paola Palanza and colleagues, “Effects of Developmental Exposure to Bisphenol A on Brain and Behavior in Mice,” Environmental Research, volume 108, pp. 150–157, 2008.

[23] For a review, see Beverly Rubin’s article “Bisphenol A: An Endocrine Disruptor with Widespread Exposure and Multiple Effects,” Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, volume 127, pp. 27–34, 2011.

[24] George Bittner and colleagues, “Estrogenic Chemicals Often Leach from BPA-Free Plastic Products That Are Replacements for BPA-Containing Polycarbonate Products,” Environmental Health, May 28, 2014, online at www.ehjournal.net/content/13/1/41. See also Chun Yang and colleagues, “Most Plastic Products Release Estrogenic Chemicals,” cited above.

[25] John Meeker, “Exposure to Environmental Endocrine Disruptors and Child Development,” JAMA Pediatrics, volume 166, pp. 952–958, 2012. The estimate of 84,000 chemicals comes from this article.

[26] 这句话来自Philippe Grandjean和Philip Landrigan合著的「发展中毒性的神经行为效应」（Neurobehavioural Effects of Developmental Toxicity），二○一四年发表在Lancet Neurology一三卷三三○─三三八页。

[27] Yoshinori Masuo and colleagues, “Motor Hyperactivity Caused by a Deficit in Dopaminergic Neurons and the Effects of Endocrine Disruptors: A Study Inspired by the Physiological Roles of PACAP in the Brain,” Regulatory Peptides, volume 123, pp. 225–234, 2004. See also Masami Ishido and colleagues, “Dicyclohexylphthalate Causes Hyperactivity in the Rat Concomitantly with Impairment of Tyrosine Hydroxylase Immunoreactivity,” Journal of Neurochemistry, volume 91, pp. 69–76, 2004.

[28] Bung-Nyun Kim and colleagues, “Phthalates Exposure and Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder in School-Age Children,” Biological Psychiatry, volume 66, pp. 958–963, 2009.

[29] Stephanie Engel and colleagues, “Prenatal Phthalate Exposure Is Associated with Childhood Behavior and Executive Functioning,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 118, pp. 565–571, 2010. See also Amir Miodovnik and colleagues, “Endocrine Disruptors and Childhood Social Impairment,” Neurotoxicology, volume 32, pp. 261–267, 2011.

[30] 我在我的书《棉花糖女孩》的第四章有谈到暴露在会干扰内分泌的物质之下，和后来乳癌风险之间的关系，对于干扰内分泌和前列腺癌之间的关系，请看Gail Prins所着「内分泌干扰物和前列腺癌的风险」（Endocrine Disruptors and Prostate Cancer Risk）二○○八年Endocrine-Related Cancer一五卷六四九─六五六页。关于内分泌干扰物可能引起睾丸癌的证据，请看Fabrizio Giannandrea和同事合著之「睾丸癌之内生和外生的荷尔蒙效应：流行病学上的证据」（Effect of Endogenous and Exogenous Hormones on Testicular Cancer: The Epidemiological Evidence）刊登在二○一三年International Journal of Developmental Biology五七卷二五五─二六三页。对于假如目前这个趋势继续下去会怎样的警告，请看Charlotte Le Cornet和同事所着之「二○二五年欧洲的睾丸癌会上升25%？：用四十个国家人口注册数据所预测的模式」（Testicular Cancer Incidence to Rise by 25% by 2025 in Europe? Model-Based Predictions in 40 Countries Using Population-Based Registry Data）刊登在二○一四年European Journal of Cancer五○卷八三一─八三九页。

[31] Laura Vandenberg and colleagues, “Hormones and Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals: Low-Dose Effects and Nonmonotonic Dose Responses,” Endocrine Reviews, volume 33, pp. 378–455, 2012. See also Frederick vom Saal and Claude Hughes, “An Extensive New Literature Concerning Low-Dose Effects of Bisphenol A Shows the Need for a New Risk Assessment,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 113, pp. 926–933, 2005.

[32] 数据出自Cheryl Fryar and colleagues, “Prevalence of Obesity Among Children and Adolescents: United States, Trends 1963–1965 Through 2009–2010,” published September 13, 2012, by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, full text online at www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/obesity_child_09_10/obesity_child_09_10.htm.

[33] Yann Klimentidis and colleagues, “Canaries in the Coal Mine: A Cross-Species Analysis of the Plurality of Obesity Epidemics,” Proceedings of the Royal Society, volume 278, pp. 1626–1632, 2011.

[34] Jill Schneider and colleagues, “Our Stolen Figures: The Interface of Sexual Differentiation, Endocrine Disruptors, Maternal Programming, and Energy Balance,” Hormones and Behavior, volume 66, pp.104–119, 2014. See also Shane Regnier and Robert Sargis, “Adipocytes Under Assault: Environmental Disruption of Adipocyte Physiology,” Biochimica et Biophysica Acta─Molecular Basis of Disease, volume 1842, pp. 520–533, 2014.

[35] Nathaniel Mead, “Origins of Obesity: Chemical Exposures,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 112, p. A344, 2004.

[36] 所引用文句来自米德「Origins of Obesity」这个发现的学术论文，请见Frederick vom Saal的「干扰雌激素的化学双酚A (BPA)和肥胖症」（The Estrogenic Endocrine Disrupting Chemical Bisphenol A (BPA) and Obesity），二○一二年发表于Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology三五四卷，七四─八四页。

[37] Ines Sedlmeyer and Mark Palmert, “Delayed Puberty: Analysis of a Large Case Series from an Academic Center,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, volume 87, pp. 1613–1620, 2002.

[38] Antony Johansen and colleagues, “Fracture Incidence in England and Wales: A Study Based on the Population of Cardiff ,” Injury, volume 28, pp. 655–660, 1997.

[39] A. Gulati and colleagues, “Pediatric Fractures: Temporal Trends and Cost Implications of Treatment Under General Anesthesia,” European Journal of Trauma and Emergency Surgery, volume 38, pp. 59–64, 2012.

[40] Juha-Jaakko Sinikumpu, Forearm Shaft Fractures in Children (Oulu, Finland: Oulu University Hospital, 2013), full text online at http://herkules.oulu.fi/isbn9789526203003/isbn9789526203003.pdf. A condensed version of this report was published under the title “The Changing Pattern of Pediatric Both-Bone Forearm Shaft Fractures Among 86,000 Children from 1997 to 2009,” European Journal of Pediatric Surgery, volume 23, pp. 289–296, 2013. See also C. E. de Putter and colleagues, “Trends in Wrist Fractures in Children and Adolescents, 1997–2009,” Journal of Hand Surgery, volume 36, pp. 1810–1815, 2011.

[41] 关于过去四十年，从牛奶转到汽水的文献，请看我的书《教养，你可以做得更好》（远流出版）第二章，关于可乐饮料如何影响孩子骨头的矿物质，请看我在Victor Preedy编辑的Annual Reviews in Food & Nutrition书中第二章「饮食的磷酸化是营养的毒：对年龄和性别的影响」（Dietary Phosphorus as a Nutritional Toxin: The Influence of Age and Sex）一五八─一六八页（二○○三年伦敦Taylor和Francis出版）。

[42] E. M. Clark and colleagues, “Adipose Tissue Stimulates Bone Growth in Prepubertal Children,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, volume 91, pp. 2534–2541, 2006.

[43] Dimitrios Agas and colleagues, “Endocrine Disruptors and Bone Metabolism,” Archives of Toxicology, volume 87, pp. 735–751, 2013.

[44] 参见Mari Golub and colleagues, “Endocrine Disruption in Adolescence: Immunologic, Hematologic, and Bone Effects in Monkeys,” Toxicological Sciences, volume 82, pp. 598–607, 2004; Monica Lind and colleagues, “Abnormal Bone Composition in Female Juvenile American Alligators from a Pesticide-Polluted Lake (Lake Apopka, Florida),” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 112, pp. 359–362, 2004; and Christian Sonne and colleagues, “Is Bone Mineral Composition Disrupted by Organochlorines in East Greenland Polar Bears (Ursus maritimus)?” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 112, pp. 1711–1716, 2004.

[45] 在《棉花糖女孩》（远流出版）的第五章中，我谈到人类儿童与猴子在游戏行为上的研究，男生和雄猴都偏好玩一个灰色有轮子的卡车而不喜欢鲜艳颜色但没有轮子的洋娃娃，请看Janice Hassett、Erin Siebert和Kim Wallen合著的「恒河猴在玩具的偏好上跟人类的性别差异一样」（Sex Differences in Rhesus Monkey Toy Preferences Parallel Those of Children）刊登在二○○八年的Hormones and Behavior五四卷，三五九─三六四页。其他在黑猩猩的研究上也得到同样的结果，请见Sonya Kahlenberg和Richard Wrangham合著之「黑猩猩在用树枝作玩具跟人类儿童的性别差异一样」（Sex Differences in Chimpanzees’ Use of Sticks as Play Objects Resemble Those of Children）刊登在二○一○年Current Biology二○卷，一○六七─一○六八页。

[46] A. K. Hotchkiss and colleagues, “Androgens and Environmental Antiandrogens Affect Reproductive Development and Play Behavior in the Sprague-Dawley Rat,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 110, Supplement 3, pp. 435–439, 2002.

[47] 参见Beverly Rubin and colleagues, “Evidence of Altered Brain Sexual Differentiation in Mice Exposed Perinatally to Low, Environmentally Relevant Levels of Bisphenol A,” Endocrinology, volume 147, pp. 3681–3691, 2006; and Frederick vom Saal, “Bisphenol A Eliminates Brain and Behavior Sex Dimorphisms in Mice: How Low Can You Go?” Endocrinology, volume 147, pp. 3679–3680, 2006.

[48] 例如参见Ernie Hood’s essay, “Are EDCs Blurring Issues of Gender?” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 113, pp. A670–A677, 2005.

[49] Leonard Paulozzi「尿道下裂和隐睾症的国际趋势」（International Trends in Rates of Hypospadias and Cryptorchidism）刊登在一九九九年的Environmental Health Perspectives一○七卷二九七─三○二页。Paulozzi的数据只到九○年代，最近的数据显示这两种缺陷的趋势持续上升，请看二○一二年的「International Clearinghouse for Birth Defects Surveillance and Research Annual Report」，它可见网站www.icbdsr.org/filebank/documents/ar2005 /Report2012.pdf，根据这个报告，一九七四─一九八○年，亚特兰大市婴儿的尿道下裂和隐睾症上升了五倍（二三五页），请见C. L. Acerini和同事合著之「英国婴儿研究：先天和后天尿道下裂、隐睾症的描述性流行病学」（The Descriptive Epidemiology of Congenital and Acquired Cryptorchidism in a UK Infant Cohort），刊登在二○○九年Archives of Diseases in Childhood九四卷八六八─八七二页。这些研究者记录这个他们称之为「上升的睾丸」的现象，这个现象又称之为后天的隐睾症，婴儿出生时是正常的下降睾丸，但是后来一个或两个睾丸缩回到腹股沟管去了。

[50] Thomas Travison和同事合著之「美国男士血清中睾固酮浓度下降」（A Population-Level Decline in Serum Testosterone Levels in American Men）刊登在二○○七年Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism九二卷一九六─二○二页。在欧洲也侦察到同样的浓度下降，见Anna-Maria Andersson和同事合著之「丹麦人口调查男性睾固酮和结合血清球蛋白的性荷尔蒙浓度长期的下降」（Secular Decline in Male Testosterone and Sex Hormone Binding Globulin Serum Levels in Danish Population Surveys）刊登在二○○七Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism九二卷四六九六─四七○五页。

[51] 例如参见Tina Lassen and colleagues, “Trends in Male Reproductive Health and Decreasing Fertility: Possible Influence of Endocrine Disruptors,” International Studies in Population, volume 11, pp. 117–135, 2014. See also Julia Barrett, “Fertile Grounds for Inquiry: Environmental Effects on Human Reproduction,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 114, pp. A644–A649, 2006.

[52] Nils Skakkebak, E. Rajpert-De Meyts, and Katharina Main, “Testicular Dysgenesis Syndrome: An Increasingly Common Developmental Disorder with Environmental Aspects,” Human Reproduction, volume 16, pp. 972–978, 2001. The quotations are from p. 977.

[53] Shanna H. Swan和同事合著之「怀孕期间暴露在磷苯二甲酸酯之男婴肛门性器间距离」（Decrease in Anogenital Distance Among Male Infants with Prenatal Phthalate Exposure）刊登二○○五年的Environmental Health Perspectives一一三卷一○五六─一○六一页。关于最近的数据请看Swan博士的论文（与六人合著）「怀孕第一期暴露在磷苯二甲酸酯新生儿的肛门性器间距离」（First Trimester Phthalate Exposure and Anogenital Distance in Newborns）刊登在二○一五年Human Reproduction三○卷，九六三─九七二页。

[54] 史万医生写给我的e-mail, February 7, 2007.

[55] 请看Norman Barlow和同事合著之「在子宫中暴露在磷苯二甲酸二丁酯的男性生殖器官伤害，在六个月、十二个月和十八个月的情形」（Male Reproductive Tract Lesions at Six, Twelve, and Eighteen Months of Age Following In Utero Exposure to Di(n-butyl) Phthalate）刊登在二○○四年的Toxicology and Pathology三二卷七九─九○页。以及Makato Ema和Emiko Miyawaki合著的「老鼠怀孕后期服用磷苯二甲酸二丁酯，一个磷苯二甲酸二丁酯的代谢物对男性下一代生殖系统发育的不利作用」（Adverse Effects on Development of the Reproductive System in Male Offspring of Rats Given Monobutyl Phthalate, a Metabolite of Dibutyl Phthalate, During Late Pregnancy）刊登在二○○一年的Reproductive Toxicology一五卷，一八九─一九四页。

[56] Shanna Swan, E. P. Elkin, and L. Fenster, “The Question of Declining Sperm Density Revisited: An Analysis of 101 Studies Published 1934–1996,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 108, pp. 961–966, 2000.

[57] 请看Loa Nordkap和同事合著的「男性生殖健康的区域差异和时间趋势：精虫质量可能是环境暴露的敏感指标」（Regional Differences and Temporal Trends in Male Reproductive Health Disorders: Semen Quality May Be a Sensitive Marker of Environmental Exposures）刊登在二○一二年Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology三五五卷，二二一─二三○页。M. Rolland和同事合著的「法国一九八九年到二○○五年26,609名男士精液中精虫浓度和精虫形态的下降」（Decline in Semen Concentration and Morphology in a Sample of 26,609 Men Close to General Population Between 1989 and 2005 in France）刊登在二○一三年的Human Reproduction二八卷，四六二─四七○页。Jaime Mendiola的「南西班牙大学生精虫数量可能下降」（Sperm Counts May Have Declined in Young University Students in Southern Spain）刊登在二○一三年的Andrology第一卷，四○八─四一三页。Helena Virtanen和同事合著的「芬兰追随着趋势──芬兰男性的精子质量」（Finland Is Following the Trend─Sperm Quality in Finnish Men）刊登在二○一三年Asian Journal of Andrology一五卷一六二─一六四页。Edson Borges等人合著的「过去十年来巴西不孕症男子精虫质量的下降」（Decline in Semen Quality Among Infertile Men in Brazil During the Past 10 Years）刊登在二○一五年International Brazilian Journal of Urology四一卷七五七─七六三页。这个效应不只是在发展的国家中人民身上重复得到印证，同时在牛群身上也有发现，请见Tomaz Snoj等人合著之「公牛精子质量反思研究－跟所用的杀虫剂有相关吗？」（Retrospective Study of Bull Semen Quality─Possible Correlation with Pesticide Use?）刊登在二○一三年的Acta Veterinaria Hungarica六一卷四九五─五○四页。

[58] Shanna Swan and colleagues, “Geographic Differences in Semen Quality of Fertile U.S. Males,” Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 111, pp. 414–420, 2003. For a more recent review, see Sheena Martenies and Melissa Perry, “Environmental and Occupational Pesticide Exposure and Human Sperm Parameters: A Systematic Review,” Toxicology, volume 307, pp. 66–73, 2013.

[59] Susan Duty and colleagues, “Phthalate Exposure and Human Semen Parameters,” Epidemiology, volume 14, pp. 269–277, 2003. See also Richard Grady and Sheela Sathyanarayana, “An Update on Phthalates and Male Reproductive Development and Function,” Pediatric Urology, volume 13, pp. 307–310, 2012. There is also evidence that exposure to phthalates decreases male hormone levels. See, for example, John Meeker and Kelly Ferguson, “Urinary Phthalate Metabolites Are Associated with Decreased Serum Testosterone in Men, Women, and Children from NHANES 2011–2012,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, volume 99, pp. 4346–4352, 2014; and Jaime Mendiola and colleagues, “Urinary Concentrations of Di(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate Metabolites and Serum Reproductive Hormones: Pooled Analysis of Fertile and Infertile Men,” Journal of Andrology, volume 33, pp. 488–498, 2012.

[60] Jane Fisher, “Environmental Anti-Androgens and Male Reproductive Health: Focus on Phthalates and Testicular Dysgenesis Syndrome,” Reproduction, volume 127, pp. 305–315, 2004. See also Lise Aksglaede and colleagues, “The Sensitivity of the Child to Sex Steroids: Possible Impact of Exogenous Estrogens,” Human Reproduction Update, volume 12, pp. 341–349, 2006.

[61] 这一段综合了很多研究的结果，过去三十年来，有一百多个研究都发现睾固酮和人类缺乏驱力动机有相关。以下是一些具代表性的研究，按年代排序：
• Alan Booth and colleagues, “Testosterone and Winning and Losing in Human Competition,” Hormones and Behavior, volume 23, pp. 556–571, 1989.
• B. Gladue, M. Boechler, and K. McCaul, “Hormonal Response to Competition in Human Males,” Aggressive Behavior, volume 15, pp. 409–422, 1989.
• K. D. McCaul, B. Gladue, and M. Joppa, “Winning, Losing, Mood, and Testosterone,” Hormones and Behavior, volume 26, pp. 486–504, 1992.
• A. Mazur, E. J. Susman, and S. Edelbrock, “Sex Differences in Testosterone Response to a Video Game Contest,” Evolution and Human Behavior, volume 18, pp. 317–326, 1997.
• A. Mazur and Alan Booth, “Testosterone and Dominance in Men,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences, volume 21, pp. 353–363, 1998.
• E. Cashdan, “Are Men More Competitive Than Women?” British Journal of Social Psychology, volume 34, pp. 213–229, 1998.
• David Geary and M. V. Flinn, “Sex Differences in Behavioral and Hormonal Response to Social Threat,” Psychological Review, volume 109, pp. 745–750, 2002.
• H. S. Bateup and colleagues, “Testosterone, Cortisol, and Women's Competition,” Evolution and Human Behavior, volume 23, pp. 181–192, 2002.
• Katie Kivlighan, Douglas Granger, and Alan Booth, “Gender Diff erences in Testosterone and Cortisol Response to Competition,” Psychoneuroendocrinology, volume 30, pp. 58–71, 2005.
• Goncalo Oliveira and colleagues, “Testosterone Response to Competition in Males Is Unrelated to Opponent Familiarity or Threat Appraisal,” Frontiers in Psychology, volume 5, article 1240, pp. 1–7, 2014.

[62] 这些建议有一部分来自Dr. Swan的文章「父母亲不需要等到政府立法才来保护孩子不受有毒产品的伤害」（Parents Needn't Wait for Legislation to Shield Kids from Toxins in Products），二○○六年一月九日San Francisco Chronicle报。

第六章　结果：赖家王老五

[1] 我很感谢Walt Prichard提供这则轶闻──他坚信这是个真实的故事。

[2] 我在二○○五年八月的美国心理学会（APA）年会中，主持了一个讨论会，题目是听觉、视觉和嗅觉的性别差异，在我的讨论会中报告的有费城Monell 化学中心的Pamela Dalton博士。Dalton博士做了很多嗅觉研究，发现女性的嗅觉比男性好了十万倍，她和同事发表了两篇这方面的论文「特定性别差异导致的嗅觉敏感度」（Gender-Specific Induction of Enhanced Sensitivity to Odors）刊登在二○○二年三月的Nature Neuroscience五卷，一九九─二○○页。以及Jeanmarie Diamond、Pamela Dalton等人合著的「性别特定的嗅觉敏感度：荷尔蒙和认知的影响」（Gender-Specific Olfactory Sensitization: Hormonal and Cognitive Influences）刊登在二○○五年的Chemical Senses三○卷附件一，二二四─二二五页。最近有更多的研究提供证据嗅脑中性别的差异是先天设定的，例如Ana Oliveira-Pinto等人合著的「人类嗅脑的性别差异：女性比男性有着更多的神经元和胶质细胞」（Sexual Dimorphism in the Human Olfactory Bulb: Females Have More Neurons and Glial Cells Than Males）刊登在二○一四年PLOS One的十一月号，也可见网路http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371 /journal.pone.0111733下载。

[3] Charles Murray的「职业学校怎么了？」（What's Wrong with Vocational School?），刊载于二○○七年一月十七日的《华尔街日报》（Wall Street Journal）。

[4] 这一段所有的引句来自Murray「职业学校怎么了？」（What's Wrong with Vocational School?）。

[5] 克莱费尔教授写给我的E-mail, January 19, 2007.

[6] 此一分析出自“The State of American Manhood,” by Tom Mortenson, writing for the September 2006 edition of Postsecondary Education Opportunity, www.postsecondary.org.

[7] Louis Uchitelle, David Leonhardt, and Amanda Cox, “Men Not Working, and Not Wanting Just Any Job,” New York Times, July 31, 2006, pp. A1, A18, A19.

[8] Steven Hipple, “People Who Are Not in the Labor Force: Why Aren’t They Working?” Bureau of Labor Statistics, Beyond the Numbers, volume 4, number 15, December 2015, Table 2, “Men Aged 25 to 54 Years Who Did Not Work or Look for Work in 2004 and 2014,” www.bls.gov/opub/btn/volume-4/pdf/people-who-are-not-in-the-labor-force-why-arent-they-working.pdf.

[9] Laura Sessions Stepp, Unhooked: How Young Women Pursue Sex, Delay Love and Lose at Both (New York: Riverhead/Penguin, 2007), p. 9. Stepp hired an independent research group, Child Trends, to conduct this study, www.childtrends.org.

[10] 到二○一五年十一月为止，美国人口调查局最新的报告是Jonathan Vespa等人合著的「二○一二年美国的家庭和生活方式」（America's Families and Living Arrangements: 2012）发表在二○一三年的该局报告中，可以在网站上下载：www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/p20 -570.pdf，这些数字来自这篇文章的前言。

[11] 这些图片来自「单身汉的大型调查」（Share of Men Never Married, by Cohort），出自Wendy Wang和Kim Parker发表于二○一四年九月二十四日的报告「Pew Report Record Share of Americans Have Never Married」，可从网站www.pewsocialtrends.org/2014/09/24 /record-share-of-americans-have-never-married下载。

[12] 这一段所有的引用句来自Blaine Harden的文章「结婚有孩子的人数下降」（Numbers Drop for the Married with Children），二○○七年三月四日《华盛顿邮报》。

[13] Eduardo Porter and Michelle O'Donnell, “Facing Middle Age with No Degree, and No Wife,” New York Times, August 6, 2006, p. A18.

[14] US Census Bureau, Families and Living Arrangements, “Living Arrangements of Adults,” Table AD-1, “Young Adults Living at Home,” www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/adults.html, accessed October 19, 2015.

[15] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, “Data Brief 162: Recent Declines in Nonmarital Childbearing in the United States. Data Table for Figure 1: Number, Percentage, and Rate of Births to Unmarried Women: United States, 1940–2013,” online at www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db162_table.pdf, accessed October 23, 2015.

[16] Sam Roberts and colleagues, “51 Percent of Women Are Now Living Without Spouse,” New York Times, January 16, 2007.

[17] US Census, “Families and Living Arrangements: Living Arrangements of Adults,” Table UC-1, “Unmarried Couples of the Opposite Sex,” www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/adults.html, accessed January 6, 2016.

[18] Cynthia Robbins and colleagues, “Prevalence, Frequency, and Associations of Masturbation with Partnered Sexual Behaviors Among US Adolescents,” JAMA Pediatrics, volume 165, pp. 1087–1093, 2011.

[19] 请见Jennifer Schneider的「网路性行为者的质的研究：性别差异恢复议题和治疗师的意义」（A Qualitative Study of Cybersex Participants: Gender Differences, Recovery Issues, and Implications for Therapists）刊登在二○○○年的Sexual Addiction and Compulsivity七卷，二四九─二七八页。Schneider发现很多男性发现可以在网际网路上虚拟性交后，经验过持续升高性欲和快感的强迫性网交。

[20] Martin Kafk a and John Hennen, “The Paraphilia-Related Disorders: An Empirical Investigation of Nonparaphilic Hypersexuality Disorders in Outpatient Males,” Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, volume 25, pp. 305–319, 1999.

[21] Najah S. Musacchio、Molly Hartrich和Robert Garofalo合著的「勃起障碍和威而钢使用：大学男生是怎么回事？」（Erectile Dysfunction and Viagra Use: What’s Up with College-Age Males?）刊登在二○○六年Journal of Adolescent Health期刊三九卷四五二─四五四页。这些作者调查十八岁到二十五岁男生的性行为。这篇文章的摘要写的很不清楚，令人迷惑，他们说「13%报告说有勃起困难……，25%报告说使用保险套有勃起困难」，但是在文本中，作者解释二百三十四名男性中有二十九名报告有勃起困难，而五十八名报告在使用保险套时，有勃起困难：阴茎在戴保险套时变软，二十个人是既有勃起困难也有戴保险套时勃起困难，所以总共有七十八名男性有勃起困难（不管有没有用保险套），假如你做一点数学（七十八除以二三四），你得到0.333，即33.3%，三个里面就有一个。

[22] Amado Bechara and colleagues, “Recreational Use of Phosphodiesterase Type 5 Inhibitors by Healthy Young Men,” Journal of Sexual Medicine, volume 7, pp. 3736–3742, 2010.

[23] 我在二○○六年三月三十一日写了一篇文章「男孩子怎么了？」（What's Happening to Boys?）登在《华盛顿邮报》上，我引用的e-mail不是直接对我文章的反应，而是后来《华盛顿邮报》办了一场这个题目的座谈会时，对那个座谈会的反应。

[24] 这个专题是net.seXXX: Readings on Sex, Pornography, and the Internet, edited by Dennis Waskul (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2004). 引文来自Andreas Philaretou对此一专题的评论：Journal of Sex Research under the title “Sexuality and the Internet,” volume 42, pp. 180–181, 2005.

[25] Andreas Philaretou, “Sexuality and the Internet.”

[26] 例如参见Gail Gines, Pornland: How Porn Has Hijacked Our Sexuality (Boston: Beacon Press, 2011). See also Ariel Levy, Female Chauvinist Pigs: Women and the Rise of Raunch Culture (New York: Free Press, 2005).

[27] Erik Hedegaard, “The Dirty Mind and Lonely Heart of John Mayer,” Rolling Stone (cover story), February 4, 2010.

[28] You can read the full text of John Mayer's interview with Playboy (without the photos), at this link: http://dbeaumonte.com/2010/02/10/what-did-john-mayer-say-read-full-playboy-article-here.

[29] 所有的对话在www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion /2006/03/30/DI2006033001398.html。

[30] 这个节目的录音（四十二分钟），请看二○○六年四月四日WBUR电台跟「Tom Ashbrook」节目「赖家王老五」（Failure to Launch），http://onpoint.wbur.org/2006/04/04/failure-to-launch。

[31] 例如参见“Mammoni: The ‘Mama's Boys’ of Italy,” CBS News, March 4, 2001, www.cbsnews.com/videos/mammoni-the-mamas-boys-of-italy.

[32] 关于hikikomori，可参见Michael Zielenziger的著作Shutting Out the Sun: How Japan Created Its Own Lost Generation (New York: Nan A. Talese, 2006).

第七章　第五个因素：被遗弃神祇的复仇

[1] 我很感谢我以前的病患Anders Eklof建议的这个副题。

[2] J. R. Moehringer, The Tender Bar (New York: Hyperion, 2005), p. 39.

[3] David Brooks, “Virtues and Victims,” New York Times, April 9, 2006.

[4] David Gilmore, Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990), pp. 14–15.

[5] Gilmore, Manhood in the Making, p. 25.

[6] Elisabeth Griffith, PhD, personal communication, November 6, 2003.

[7] Gary Leupp, Male Colors: The Construction of Homosexuality in Tokugawa Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).

[8] Thorkil Vanggaard, Phallos: A Symbol and Its History in the Male World (New York: International Universities Press, 1972). For more about the status of homosexuality among the Spartans and other ancient Greeks, see chapter 3 of Vanggaard's book, “Phallic Worship in Ancient Greece,” pp. 59–70.

[9] 事实上，记录中有两个文化打破了这个规矩：大溪地和马来西亚的Semai文化，在这两个文化中，勇敢的人并没有比懦弱的人更受尊敬，努力工作的人也不被看好，Semai的文化没有传统的男性主义，没有竞争，没有私人拥有的土地，也没有保护女人不受男人侵害的概念，Gilmore在他的《制造男人》（Manhood in the Making）一书中（二一二页）说：「Semai文化没有任何男性的荣耀或作为父亲的光荣去激励他们，Semai男人不抵抗，简单地说，Semai男人不担心荣誉、为人父或社交界线，」「他们的生活中没有什么性别差异，所有东西都共享，他们完全没有『我的东西』的概念，我的、你的，对他们没有意义。」（二一四页）。假如你想研究Semai人，你得赶快，这个文化在以惊人的速度在消失中，虽然跟其他文化只有一点点的接触，他们也完全没有办法存活在现在的社会里。
第二个是大溪地的原住民文化，这个文化现在已经绝迹了，Gilmore说大溪地原住民文化可能是最没有性别差异的社会文化，即使今天，大溪地语言中仍然没有男人和女人的词汇，在传统大溪地文化中，成年人的角色几乎完全没有性别差异，大溪地男人和女人一起负担养育孩子、煮饭、做家务的责任。
是什么因素使大溪地发展出这种中性的文化？第一个原因很可能是资源丰富，Gilmore发现大溪地和它附近的岛屿几乎不需要努力或风险就能拿到足够的食物，而大部分的人类社区资源都是不足的。取之不尽，用之不绝的资源使得大溪地跟地球上其他地方不一样，Gilmore在他二二四页的结论中说：「环境越恶劣，资源越匮乏，成为男子汉大丈夫的压力和动机越大」。
第二个因素是缺乏和其他文化交流，这点对Semai人也适用，Gilmore认为在人类其他社群中，「真正的男人」的主要功能是跟别的社区交涉：或是透过打战臣服于人，或是透过交涉和平共处，大溪地人一直到欧洲人于一八○○年来殖民，他们没有跟外界联络，自从传教士在一八一五年到达大溪地后，在短短的六十年间，大溪地自己的文化在Pomare女王四世驾崩后，整个文化便消失了，「在一个世代之间，传统的大溪地文化更彻底毁灭掉了」，Jean-Bernard Carillet在他的《大溪地和法国的波里尼西亚》（Tahiti and French Polynesia）一书（这本书二○○○年在澳洲墨尔本出版）一三页中说，Semai文化除了在最遥远的森林中，已经几乎灭绝了。
这两个文化都无法在跟外界接触以后存活下来，即使一个世代的时间都不可能，这个快速的崩溃显示一个文化要持久，它需要有「真正的男人」才能在跟别的文化接触后还能存活下来，没有性别差异的文化无法持久。

[10] 我指的是Kinaaldá仪式，对这个仪式的介绍，我推荐Monty Roessel的摄影文章「Kinaaldá：一个A Navajo女孩的成长」（Kinaaldá: A Navajo Girl Grows Up），里面有些绝佳的图片，此书在一九九三年由Minneapolis的Lerner公司出版。

[11] Peggy Drexler, Raising Boys Without Men: How Maverick Moms Are Creating the Next Generation of Exceptional Men (Emmaus, PA: Rodale, 2006), p. 92.

[12] 我的「吹牛的饶舌歌手或假装是饶舌歌手」，但其实是判了罪的重刑犯是指Lil Wayne和Akon，Lil Wayne是携带武器的重刑犯，他使听者想起他的歌是「Paint Tha Town」。但是至少Lil Wayne有诚实地说他的过去犯罪历史，他其实有入监服刑，Akon又名Aliaume Thiam，是二十一世纪最成功的嘻哈艺术家，他有十首以上的歌销售百万张以上。他吹牛他是一个偷车集团背后的首脑，这个集团只偷保时捷和蓝宝坚尼这种名贵车，宣称曾为此入狱三年，从一九九九到二○○二年在乔治亚州的重刑监中服刑，这些后来都被戳破，是个谎言。他从来没有因偷车而定罪，也没有去过乔治亚州的监狱（虽然他曾因持有偷来的东西而被关过DeKalb郡的监狱，后来罪名被取消），根据现行犯（Smoking Gun）杂志的故事，Akon以为他的歌迷喜欢这种调调儿，所以过分渲染他的自传，他所编造的故事显然是他打广告的一种手腕，他重复「恶名昭彰的偷车贼」太多次使得听起来好似他在读提示稿，请看「Akon的骗术」（Akon’s Con Job），「The Smoking Gun」杂志，二○○八年四月十六日， www.thesmokinggun.com/documents/crime/akons-con-job, accessed October 30, 2015。

[13] Gilmore, Manhood in the Making, p. 11.

[14] Gilmore, Manhood in the Making, p. 150.

[15] Gilmore, Manhood in the Making, p. 95.

[16] Jeffrey P. Hantover「童子军和男子气慨」（The Boy Scouts and the Validation of Masculinity），一九七八年刊载于Journal of Social Issues三四卷，一八四─一九五页。也请看Julia Grant的文章「一个真正的男孩而不是胆小鬼：性别、童年和男子气概，一八九○─一九四○」（A ‘Real Boy’ and Not a Sissy: Gender, Childhood, and Masculinity, 1890–1940），刊登在二○○四年的Journal of Social History三七卷，八二九─八五一页。

[17] Alfred Habegger, Gender, Fantasy, and Realism in American Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), pp. 199–200.

[18] Gilmore, Manhood in the Making, p. 108.

[19] Gilmore, Manhood in the Making, p. 136.

[20] Gilmore, Manhood in the Making, p. 141.

[21] Gilmore, Manhood in the Making, p. 145.

[22] Gilmore, Manhood in the Making, p. 39.

[23] 下面是一些文献显示刚刚移民到美国来的女孩，她们比较不像生长在美国本地的女孩那样焦虑或沮丧忧郁：
• Margarita Alegria and colleagues, “Prevalence of Mental Illness in Immigrant and Non-immigrant Latino Groups,” American Journal of Psychiatry, volume 165, pp. 359–369, 2008, full text online at no charge at National Center for Biotechnology Information, US National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health (NIH), www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2712949.
• Huong Nguyen, “Asians and the Immigrant Paradox,” pp. 1–22 in Asian American and Pacific Islander Children and Mental Health, volume 1, edited by Frederick Leong and Linda Juang (New York: Praeger, 2011).
• Liza Suarez and colleagues, “Prevalence and Correlates of Childhood-Onset Anxiety Disorders Among Latinos and Non-Latino Whites in the United States,” Psicologia Conductual / Behavioral Psychology, volume 17, pp. 89–109, 2009, full text available online at no charge at National Center for Biotechnology Information, US National Library of Medicine, NIH, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2800359.
• David Takeuchi and colleagues, “Immigration and Mental Health: Diverse Findings in Asian, Black, and Latino Populations,” American Journal of Public Health, volume 97, pp. 11–12, 2007. This article is an introduction to a special issue of the American Journal of Public Health (AJPH) devoted to documenting and understanding the interaction between immigration status and mental health in the United States. Full text online at National Center for Biotechnology Information, US National Library of Medicine, NIH, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1716240. From that special issue of AJPH, see, for example, “Immigration-Related Factors and Mental Disorders Among Asian Americans,” American Journal of Public Health, volume 97, pp. 84–90, full text at AJPH, http://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.2006.088401. This article documents a peculiar gender quirk in the immigrant paradox: while the immigrant-paradox effect was generally stronger for females than for males (i.e., being born outside of the United States was more protective for females than for males), English-language proficiency was a greater risk factor for males than for females. If you are male, and you were born in Asia, and you move to the United States, then mastering English puts you at greater risk of mental disorder; but that’s not true if you are female. Go figure. Here is some of the evidence that girls whose families have recently immigrated to the United States are less likely than American-born girls to engage in binge drinking or other forms of alcohol and/or substance abuse:
• Michele Allen and colleagues, “The Relationship Between Spanish Language Use and Substance Use Behaviors Among Latino Youth,” Journal of Adolescent Health, volume 43, pp. 372–379, 2008.
• Donald Hernandez and colleagues, “Children in Immigrant Families: Demography, Policy, and Evidence for the Immigrant Paradox,” in The Immigrant Paradox in Children and Adolescents: Is Becoming American a Developmental Risk? edited by Cynthia Garcia Coll and Amy Kerivan Marks (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2011).
• Guillermo Prado and colleagues, “What Accounts for Differences in Substance Use Among U.S.-Born and Immigrant Hispanic Adolescents? Results from a Longitudinal Prospective Cohort Study,” Journal of Adolescent Health, volume 45, pp. 118–125, 2009. Prado and his colleagues document that foreign- born Hispanic adolescents are significantly less likely to engage in drug abuse than similarly situated US-born Hispanic adolescents. They conclude that the key difference is that the US-born Hispanic teens are looking to their same-age peers for guidance, while the foreign-born Hispanic teens are looking to their parents and to other adults for guidance.
• William Armando Vega and colleagues, “Illicit Drug Use Among Mexicans and Mexican Americans in California: The Effects of Gender and Acculturation,” Addiction, volume 93, pp. 1839–1850, 1998. 关于移民孩子的青少年性行为，尤其是十五岁以前的性交，请看Marcela Raffaelli、Hyeyoung Kang和Tristan Guarini合著的「探索青少年移民的性行为悖论：从生态的观点」（Exploring the Immigrant Paradox in Adolescent Sexuality: An Ecological Perspective）在Coll和Marks编辑的《儿童与青少年移民的悖论》（The Immigrant Paradox in Children and Adolescents）书中第五章，同时请看Tristan Guarini等人合著之「拉丁美洲商青少年移民在性行为风险上的悖论：移民世代和性别差异的影响」（The Immigrant Paradox in Sexual Risk Behavior Among Latino Adolescents: Impact of Immigrant Generation and Gender）刊登在二○一一年的Applied Developmental Science一五卷，二○一─二○九页。

[24] 在美国出生的男孩，比在美国之外的地方出生的男孩罹患精神病的风险较高的文献，请见注23。下面是一些关于第一代移民的男孩比较不像美国出生男孩会去做犯罪的行为，如在街上赛车或暴力犯罪：
• Xi Chen and Hua Zhong, “Delinquency and Crime Among Immigrant Youth─An Integrative Review of Theoretical Explanations,” Laws, volume 2, pp. 210–232, 2013.
• Donald Hernandez and colleagues, “Children in Immigrant Families: Demography, Policy, and Evidence for the Immigrant Paradox,” in Coll and Marks, editors, The Immigrant Paradox in Children and Adolescents, cited above. These researchers find that “the immigrant paradox holds true regarding delinquency, both before and after controlling for [socioeconomic status], for most groups across the first and second generations but not across the second and third generations. The first generation of nearly all groups is less likely than Whites in native-born families [in the USA] to have engaged in delinquent behaviors.”
• John MacDonald and Jessica Saunders, “Are Immigrant Youth Less Violent? Specifying the Reasons and Mechanisms,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, volume 641, pp. 125–147, 2012. The boy who says “School is a stupid waste of time” is a boy who is not academically engaged. Here are some of the studies demonstrating that boys born in the United States are less academically engaged compared with boys who have immigrated to the United States:
• Emily Greenman, “Educational Attitudes, School Peer Context, and the Immigrant Paradox in Education,” Social Science Research, volume 42, pp. 698–714, 2013.
• Lingin Hao and Yingyi Ma, “Immigrant Youth in Postsecondary Education,” chapter 12 in Coll and Marks, editors, The Immigrant Paradox in Children and Adolescents, cited above.
• Carola Suarez-Orozco and colleagues, “Unraveling the Immigrant Paradox: Academic Engagement and Disengagement Among Recently Arrived Immigrant Youth,” Youth and Society, volume 41, pp. 151–185, 2009.
• Vivian Tseng, “Family Interdependence and Academic Adjustment in College: Youth from Immigrant and U.S.-Born Families,” Child Development, volume 75, pp. 966–983, 2004. Tseng finds that the key factor explaining the immigrant paradox in her study of 998 youth with Asian Pacific, Latino, African /Afro-Caribbean, and European backgrounds was the sense of “family obligation” that many of the immigrant youths felt, but that many of the US-born youths did not feel.

[25] 对一九六○年以前移民所遭受到不平等及刁难的待遇，请看Milton Gordon的单行本《融入美国生活：种族、宗教和原国籍所扮演的角色》（Assimilation in American Life: The Role of Race, Religion, and National Origins），纽约市牛津出版社，一九六四年出版。

[26] Coll and Marks, editors, The Immigrant Paradox in Children and Adolescents, cited above.

[27] 见前注23、24。

[28] Sherry Benton and associates, “Changes in counseling center client problems across 13 years,” Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, volume 34, p. 69, 2003.

[29] The experts convened at Dartmouth wrote a monograph entitled Hardwired to Connect: The New Scientific Case for Authoritative Communities (New York: Broadway, 2003). This quotation is from p. 10 of that monograph.

[30] Alison Cooper, “One Mazda, Two Mishaps, and a Couple of Lessons in Parenting,” Washington Post, November 19, 2006, p. B8, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/17/AR2006111701421.html.

[31] Hardwired to Connect, pp. 23, 24.

[32] Harvey Mansfield, Manliness (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006), p. 17.

[33] Mansfield, Manliness, p. 23.

[34] Mansfield, Manliness, p. 20.

[35] Mansfield, Manliness, p. 20.

第八章　解药：让男孩重拾动机

[1] Rhea Borja, “Nebraska Tangles with U.S. over Testing,” Education Week, February 21, 2007.

[2] Rhea Borja, “Nebraska Swims Hard Against Testing's Tides,” Education Week, February 21, 2007, pp. 32, 33, 34.

[3] Betsy Stahler and Jill Renn spoke at the National Association for Single Sex Public Education (NASSPE) Midwest Regional Conference in Lisle, Illinois, on October 14, 2006.

[4] Roland Gorges的「Der Waldkindergarten」，二○○○年春季于Unsere Jugend，二七五─二八一页。请看Amanda Kane和Judy Kane的「Waldkindergarten in Germany」，刊载于二○一一年Green Teacher九四卷，一六─一九页。

[5] 关于一千五百个森林幼儿园以及引用Schulte-Ostermann的话来自Rupert Neate在Der Spiegel的国际网站上的英文文章「营火孩子：回到自然和森林幼儿园」（Campfire Kids: Going Back to Nature with Forest Kindergartens）。二○一三年十一月二十二日在www.spiegel.de/international /zeitgeist/forest-kindergartens-could-be-the-next-big-export-from -germany-a-935165.html。

[6] 有少数美国学校现在实施森林幼儿园的教学，请见Kathy Boccella「进入森林：在Chesco学校，他们强调的是户外」（Into the Woods: At Chesco School, the Emphasis Is on Outdoors）刊登在二○一五年十一月八日的Philadelphia Inquirer报B1和B2版。也请看Ruth Wilson的文章「在树木中间教书」（Teaching Among the Trees），刊载于二○一二年冬季的American Forests，www.americanforests.org/ magazine/article/teaching-among-the-trees。

[7] Ernesto Londono and Ruben Castaneda, “Driver Who Hit Race Crowd Tried to Stop, Uncle Says,” Washington Post, February 19, 2008.

[8] 这两段文章中所引用的话全部来自George P. Blumberg在《纽约时报》所写的文章：“Full Throttle and Fully Legal,” September 17, 2004.

[9] Bill Center, “RaceLegal Praised for Contributing to Decline in Street Racing,” San Diego Union-Tribune, December 22, 2005.

[10] 参见我的文章：“Teens Will Speed: Let’s Watch Them Do It,” Washington Post, November 28, 2004, p. B8.

[11] Charles Moore, “Give Car Racers a Chance,” Halifax Daily News (Nova Scotia), August 13, 2007, p. 11.

[12] Valerie Kalfrin, “Police Offer Racers Chance to Beat Heat,” Tampa Tribune, December 18, 2006, Metro, p. 1.

[13] Moore, “Give Car Racers a Chance,” p. 11.

[14] 在这个句子中的五个赛车选项来自Guyspeed贴出的十个项目，http://guyspeed.com/10-wild-places-to -legally-race-your-car/，二○一五年十一月二日查询。

[15] Elizabeth Roberts, “A Rush to Medicate Young Minds,” Washington Post, October 8, 2006, p. B7.

[16] Dr. Kathleen Salyer, personal communication, November 3, 2015.

[17] Rhoda Miel, “With 1 Billion Pounds of PLA Sold, Nature-Works Sees Rapid Growth to 2 Billion,” Plastics News, March 6, 2014.

[18] Amanda Datnow, Lea Hubbard, and Elisabeth Woody, Is Single Gender Schooling Viable in the Public Sector? Ford Foundation, 2001, p. 51. Full text available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED471051.pdf, accessed November 20, 2015.

[19] Datnow and colleagues, Is Single Gender Schooling Viable in the Public Sector? (cited above), p. 7.

[20] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, “Data Brief 162: Recent Declines in Nonmarital Childbearing in the United States. Data Table for Figure 1: Number, Percentage, and Rate of Births to Unmarried Women: United States, 1940–2013,” online at www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db162_table.pdf, accessed October 23, 2015.

[21] 美国人口调查局二○一五年十一月的最新报告是Jonathan Vespa和他人合写的「美国家庭和生活方式：二○一二」（America's Families and Living Arrangements: 2012）由该局二○一三年出版，可见网站www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs /p20-570.pdf，这些图片来自该篇文章的前言。

[22] 这两段文章中所引用的话全部来自Lonnae O'Neal Parker's article for the Washington Post, “The Old Kinship Team 33 Laments Disintegration of Traditional Values, Ties,” December 29, 2006, pp. A1, A10.

[23] 事实上，二○一五年有两位女士在耶路撒冷成为犹太教的教士（rabbot），但是东正教的规定是不准女性成为教士，请见Rabbi Yehoshua Looks的「为什么在以色列的东正教犹太人可以成为女性的Rabbi，但是在Diaspora的不可以」（Why Orthodox Jews in Israel Can Ordain Women as Rabbis, but Those in the Diaspora Won't），二○一五年六月十八日于Haaretz。

[24] 关于康宝的意见，可参见Bill Moyers的著作：The Power of Myth (New York: Anchor, 1991).

[25] 根据Alice Rains Trulock的传记In the Hands of Providence: Joshua L. Chamberlain and the American Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992)。亦请参见Edward Longacre所着的Joshua Chamberlain: The Soldier and the Man, reprint edition (New York: Da Capo Press, 2003).

[26] Glenn LaFantasie挑战一般人对小圆丘战役的看法，尤其是关于刺刀冲刺的部分。他认为阿拉巴马第十五军团本来就没有准备做第六次攻击，而且可能已经准备撤退了，这可以解释为什么缅因州第二十军团一冲下来，他们就马上投降了。请见他的书Twilight at Little Round Top: July 2, 1863─The Tide Turns at Gettysburg (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, 2005). 至于大部分的人的看法，见Michael Shaara普立兹奖的作品The Killer Angels (New York: Ballantine, 1974) ，电影Gettysburg就是根据这本书拍的，Shaara 以张伯伦做为盖兹堡战役中的主角。他的资讯来自参战者的家信、日记，同时请见Stephen W. Sears所着的Gettysburg (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2003)。

[27] LaFantasie, Twilight at Little Round Top, p. 172.

[28] LaFantasie, Twilight at Little Round Top, p. 189.

[29] Sears, Gettysburg, p. 296.

[30] 无数人目击此事并留下记录，历史学家同意这个事件的真实性。请看Trulock的《在上帝的手中》（In the Hands of Providence），三○四─三○六页。

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浮萍男孩：全新增订版

作　　者：利奥纳德・萨克斯(Leonard Sax, M.D., Ph.D. )

译　　者：洪兰

副总编辑：陈莉苓

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Boys Adrift : The Five Factors Driving the Growing Epidemic of Unmotivated Boys and Underachieving Young Men

This edition published by arrangement with Basic Books, an imprint of Perseus Books, LLC, a subsidiary of Hachette Book Group, Inc., New York, New York, USA.

through Bardon-Chinese Media Agency 博达著作权代理有限公司

本文

●推荐的话

重新认识身边的男孩

邢小萍台北市永安国小校长

书封

作／译者简介

推荐文 重新认识身边的男孩 邢小萍

导 读 男孩的成长需要适当的教育与引导 洪兰

第1章 谜团：缺乏动机的男孩

第2章 第一个因素：学校的改变

第3章 第二个因素：电玩游戏

第4章 第三个因素：ADHD的药物

第5章 第四个因素：内分泌干扰物质

第6章 结果：赖家王老五

第7章 第五个因素：被遗弃神祇的复仇

第8章 解药：让男孩重拾动机