注釋
前 言 這不是我們的錯
1 出生於１９６５年７月31日的喬安．羅琳，以其筆名Ｊ.Ｋ.羅琳而為人所熟知。她的故事取自Rachel Gillett, “From Welfare to One of the World’s Wealthiest Women: The Incredible Rags-to-Riches Story of J. K. Rowling,” Business Insider, May 18, 2015, https://read.bi/2NkiwF1。
2 肯恩．費雪生於１９５０年11月29日。他的故事取自其著作The Ten Roads to Riches，以及我與他的多次訪談。參見Kenneth L. Fisher, The Ten Roads to Riches: The Ways the Wealthy Got There (and How You Can Too!) (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2017)。
3 根據IMDb.com，韋斯頓的身高約１５５公分，其他來源的資料則從１５０至１５５公分都有。她嬌小的身形讓她更能容易地謊稱自己只有19歲，而非32歲，讓她得以與迪士尼簽訂那份價值30萬美元的合約，為電視影集《費莉希蒂》撰寫劇本。參見Joe Flint, “Riley Weston Fooled Us All About Her Age,” EW, October 30, 1998。
4 《富比士》「三十歲以下三十位傑出青年榜」，參見Forbes, 2018, http://bit.ly/2NEz4Xs。《紐約客》「四十歲以下二十位傑出青年榜」，參見The New Yorker, June 14 and 21, 2010。《財星》「四十歲以下四十位傑出青年榜」，參見Robert Hackett, Jeff John Roberts, Lucinda Shen, and Jen Wieczner, “The Ledger: 40 Under 40,” Fortune, n.d., https://for.tn/2xpFaRo。《企業》「三十五歲以下三十五位傑出青年榜」，參見“Rising Stars: Meet the 30 Most Inspiring Young Entrepreneurs of 2018,” Inc., n.d., http://bit.ly/2NJsP4A。幾年前，《時代》將「三十歲以下三十位傑出青年榜」改為「最有影響力青少年榜」，參見“The 30 Most Influential Teens of 2017,” Time, November 3, 2017, https://ti.me/2x7yBnl。
5 亞特蘭大國際學校與紐約哥倫比亞文法學校的學費，參見Melissa Willets, “11 Unbelievably Expensive Preschools in the U.S.,” Parenting, n.d., http://bit.ly/2N7FVcq。
6 伊蓮娜．史密斯的話引自Georgia Perry, “Silicon Valley’s College-Consultant Industry,” Atlantic, December 9, 2015。
7 “Elite College Prices Now Exceed $70,000 Per Year,” Wealth Management, March 1, 2017, https://bit.ly/2MsdJMc.
8 二○一八年的超級盃，參見“How Eagles, Patriots Starters Rated as High School Recruits,” CBS Sports, February 1, 2018, https://bit.ly/2CTa0YB。溫茲在高中入學時，身高約１７２公分，體重約57公斤，參見“Carson Wentz Was 5-8 as High School Freshman and Other Things You Might Not Know About Him,” Morning Call, April 29, 2016,
9 珍娜．伊凡諾維奇的故事取自維基百科；“Janet’s Bio,” Janet Evanovich, n.d., https://bit.ly/2Qnj9LE；以及Debra Nussbaum, “In Person: Imagine Trenton. One Author Did,” New York Times, November 3, 2002, NJ14。
10 “Blue Collar Pride: Diane Hendricks’ Rise from Teen Mom to Billionaire Entrepreneur,” Forbes, October 21, 2017, https://bit.ly/2NbI86D.
11 ２０１６年我與史考特．凱利的訪談。
12 瑪麗．芭拉的早年職涯取自Cal Fussman, “What I’ve Learned: Mary Barra,” Esquire, April 26, 2016。
13 厄蘇拉．柏恩斯不起眼的出身，取自Nanette Byrnes and Roger O. Crockett, “Ursula Burns: An Historic Succession at Xerox,” Bloomberg Business, May 28, 2009。
14 2015年我與珍妮．珂妮的訪談。
15 Hanna Rosin, “The Silicon Valley Suicides,” Atlantic, September 19, 2015.
16 “Suicide Among Youth,” Centers for Disease Control, n.d., https://bit.ly/2Bldm12.
17 參見Bruce Dick and B. Jane Ferguson, “Health for the World’s Adolescents: A Second Chance in the Second Decade,” Journal of Adolescent Health 56, no. 1 (2015): 3–6之注文。
18 “Depression and Anxiety Among College Students,” JED, n.d., http://bit.ly/2OuMvq6. 該研究由美國焦慮和抑鬱協會所進行。
19 Kevin Eagan et al., The American Freshman: National Norms Fall 2016 (Los Angeles: Higher Education Research Institute at UCLA, 2016).
20 Amy Novotney, “Students Under Pressure,” Monitor on Psychology 45, no. 8 (2014): 36; Louise A. Douce and Richard P. Keeling, A Strategic Primer on College Student Mental Health (Washington, DC: American Council on Education, 2014).
21 Greg Lukianoff and Jonathan Haidt, “The Coddling of the American Mind,” Atlantic, September 2015.
22 ２０１５年記者Susan Salter Reynolds與卡蘿．珂恩的訪談。
23 ２０１６年我與史考特．凱利的訪談。
24 歐普拉於２０１４年４月28日在史丹佛大學商學院的訪談，https://bit.ly/1q0nmlv。
25 我找遍了論文與研究等，並沒有專門針對大器晚成的學術或科學研究。我想，這還是因為「大器晚成」比較是與社會結構有關，而非與認知或發展有關的問題。為了撰寫本書，我對視大器晚成為認知問題的文學、媒體與社會上的演說等都進行了研究，設法找出其線索與特質。
26 心理學家與社會學家並未為「大器晚成」下一個完整的定義。這個概念看起來比較像是與社會結構有關。我的定義則是由綜合許多一般性的定義，以及我與多位大器晚成者的訪談而得。
27 在近期研究個體發展的複雜性的著作中，我特別推薦Todd Rose, The End of Average: How We Succeed in a World That Values Sameness (New York: HarperCollins, 2015); L. Todd Rose, Parisa Rouhani, and Kurt W. Fischer, “The Science of the Individual,” Mind, Brain, and Education 7, no. 3 (2013): 152–58; L. Todd Rose, Square Peg: My Story and What It Means for Raising Innovators, Visionaries, and Out-of-the-Box Thinkers (New York: Hachette, 2013); Scott Barry Kaufman, Ungifted: Intelligence Redefined (New York: Basic Books, 2013); Scott Barry Kaufman, ed., The Complexity of Greatness: Beyond Talent or Practice (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013); Scott Barry Kaufman and Robert J. Sternberg, “Conceptions of Giftedness,” in Handbook of Giftedness in Children (Boston: Springer, 2008); and Scott Barry Kaufman et al., “Are Cognitive G and Academic Achievement G One and the Same G? An Exploration on the Woodcock-Johnson and Kaufman Tests,” Intelligence 40, no. 2 (2012): 123–38。
第一章 我們對英雄出少年的執迷
1 與雷勒相關的故事，取自維基百科：https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonah_Lehrer。
2 坎恩發明了「外向理想」（Extrovert Ideal）這個詞，參見其Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World That Can’t Stop Talking (New York: Broadway Books, 2013)。這本書對內向者的探討，在很多方面都為本書提供了靈感。
3 「神童」原為德文wunderkind，１８８３年才首次譯為英文。Wunder意指「神奇的」（wonder），Kind則是指「孩童」（child）。
4 根據Google Books Ngram Viewer資料庫針對wunderkind這個詞在１９６０至２０１５年間的使用頻率。參見：http://bit.ly/2N7GqmO。
5 泰勒絲的唱片賣了超過１億７５００萬張，並贏得10座葛萊美獎；愛黛兒的唱片賣了超過１億６０００萬張，並贏得８座葛萊美獎；蕾哈娜的唱片賣了超過２億張，並贏得９座葛萊美獎與１座奧斯卡獎；小賈斯汀的唱片賣了超過１億４０００萬張，並贏得１座葛萊美獎。珍妮佛．勞倫斯是史上第二年輕的奧斯卡獎得主，片酬也經常是影星中最高的。唐納．葛洛佛目前主演ＦＸ熱門電視劇《亞特蘭大》，並以淘氣阿甘（Childish Gambino）為藝名，推出音樂作品。這些只是一小部分，但已足以展現年輕演藝人員的優勢。
6 這些網路名人藉由業配與贊助，成了小富翁。網紅現象看起來已經到達高點。雖然還是有很多年輕人希望能攫取百萬粉絲的追隨，並獲得大筆贊助，但整體趨勢以及許多社群媒體的用戶成長，已經趨於平緩。
7 數十年來，美式足球界一直在挑選年輕的優秀選手。有趣的是，現在這樣的情形也發生在如長曲棍球、游泳以及草地曲棍球等規模較小的運動。下一個是什麼？內部的體育活動嗎？
8 因廣泛採用如賽伯計量學等統計平台的數據分析，ＭＬＢ的管理架構已大為改變。如今，其他運動也紛紛效法，尤其是冰上曲棍球。在我撰寫本章時，國家冰球聯盟的多倫多楓葉隊才剛剛雇用了三十一歲的總管。
9 “PayScale Releases Tech Employers Compared 2016,” PayScale, March 2, 2016, https://bit.ly/2p6K4Pw; “Median Age of the Labor Force, by Sex, Race and Ethnicity,” Bureau of Labor Statistics, October 24, 2017, https://bit.ly/2xarzOv.
10 “Meet the Members of the Three-Comma Club,” Forbes, March 6, 2018, https://bit.ly/2xgC8ic.
11 這些榜單都很常見，有許多領域還是富比士傳媒大力推廣的。而如娛樂業等領域，包括《娛樂週刊》在內的許多雜誌都有自己的榜單。特別有趣的是肉品包裝業：“International Production & Processing Expo Launches Young Leaders ‘30 Under 30’ Program,” North American Meat Institute, October 7, 2014, https://bit.ly/2x9Kmts；亦參見“ ‘40 Under 40’ Honorees Recognized at Convention,” Drovers, February 9, 2015, https://bit.ly/2OiyU5e；以及“40 Under 40: Erin Brenneman Brimming with Passion,” Farm Journal’s Pork, April 27, 2016, https://bit.ly/2NHNFRX。
12 “The 30 Most Influential Teens of 2017,” Time, November 3, 2017.
13 Simon Doonan, “The Worst of Youth: Why Do We Fetishize and Overpraise the Young?,” Slate, May 26, 2011.
14 “Class of 2017 SAT Results,” College Board, n.d., https://bit.ly/2QrCUle; Ann Carrns, “Another College Expense: Preparing for the SAT and ACT,” New York Times, October 28, 2014.
15 儘管青少年運動也已經屈服於及早成功的壓力，但是「美國有超過70％的13歲孩童不再參與有組織的運動，『因為再也不好玩了』」。參見Julianna W. Miner, “Why 70 percent of Kids Quit Sports by Age 13,” Washington Post, June 1, 2016。
16 Ibid.
17 Judi Robinovitz, “The 10 Most Important Factors in College Admissions,” College Press, n.d., https://bit.ly/2xbM6SM.
18 參見，如：K. J. Dell’Antonia, “$16 Billion: The Cost of Summer,” New York Times, June 27, 2012; Vicki Glembocki, “Aren’t Kids Supposed to Be Off for the Summer?,” Philadelphia, May 23, 2013, https://bit.ly/2p2EyNE; “Parenting in America: Outlook, Worries, Aspirations Are Strongly Linked to Financial Situation,” Pew Research Center, December 17, 2015, https://pewrsr.ch/2NaGzG1。
19 Sean Gregory, “How Kid Sports Turned Pro,” Time, August 24, 2017.
20 關於安德斯．艾瑞克森，參見K. Anders Ericsson, Ralf T. Krampe, and Clemens Tesch-Römer. “The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance,” Psychological Review 100, no. 3 (1993): 363; K. Anders Ericsson, “Deliberate Practice and the Acquisition and Maintenance of Expert Performance in Medicine and Related Domains,” Academic Medicine 79, no. 10 (2004): S70–S81; K. Anders Ericsson, “The Influence of Experience and Deliberate Practice on the Development of Superior Expert Performance,” in The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance, ed. K. Anders Ericsson, Neil Charness, Roberft R. Hoffman, and Paul J. Feltovich 38 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006); K. Anders Ericsson, “Deliberate Practice and Acquisition of Expert Performance: A General Overview,” Academic Emergency Medicine 15, no. 11 (2008): 988–994; K. Anders Ericsson, “Attaining Excellence Through Deliberate Practice: Insights from the Study of Expert Performance,” in Teaching and Learning: The Essential Readings, ed. Charles Deforges and Richard Fox (Oxford: Blackwell, 2002); and Malcolm Gladwell, Outliers: The Story of Success (Boston: Little, Brown, 2008)。
21 Penelope Trunk, “My 11-Year-Old Son Auditioned at Juilliard, and We Both Learned a Lot About How Top Performers Practice,” Business Insider, May 30, 2017, https://read.bi/2p6Mf5K.
22 「數百萬」的數字是個有根據的猜測，此處一點都沒有誇張。２０１８年，美國幼稚園、小學、中學共有５６６０萬名學童，參見“Fast Facts: Back to School Statistics,” National Center for Education Statistics, n.d., https://bit.ly/1DLO7Ux。根據美國疾病管制與預防中心的資料，２０１６年有６１０萬名４歲到17歲之間的孩童患有注意力不足過動症，參見“Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD),” Centers for Disease Control, March 20, 2018, https://bit.ly/2nphXvC。最常被用來對治注意力不足過動症的處方藥派醋甲酯（Ritalin）的銷售員，在２００３至２０１６年間成長了89％，光２０１６年一年，銷售金額就達到１２０億至１４０億美元之譜。參見Ryan D’Agostino, “The Drugging of the American Boy,” Esquire, March 27, 2014。
23 ２０１６年我與利奧納德．薩克斯醫師的訪談。
24 Megan McArdle, “Go Ahead, Let Your Kids Fail,” Bloomberg, February 20, 2014, https://bloom.bg/2NDZSau. 亦參見Megan McArdle, The Up Side of Down: Why Failing Well Is the Key to Success (New York: Penguin, 2015)。
25 ２０１６年我與卡蘿．杜維克的訪談。
26 青少年與大學階段年輕人罹患憂鬱症與自殺的比例很難精確算出。這主要是因為自主通報的情況不一，來自各個通報來源的資訊也有很大的差異。但是有一點是毫無爭議或無從否認的，那就是青少年罹患憂鬱症和自殺的問題十分嚴重。參見Deborah L. McBride, “Young Adolescents as Likely to Die from Suicide as Traffic Accidents,” Journal of Pediatric Nursing 32 (2016): 83–84; Benoit Denizet-Lewis, “Why Are More American Teenagers Than Ever Suffering from Severe Anxiety?,” New York Times Magazine, October 11, 2017; Jesse Singal, “For 80 Years, Young Americans Have Been Getting More Anxious and Depressed, and No One Is Quite Sure Why,” Cut, March 13, 2016, https://bit.ly/2HFyxSZ; Rae Ellen Bichell, “Suicide Rates Climb in US, Especially Among Adolescent Girls,” NPR, April 22, 2016; Aaron E. Carroll, “Preventing Teen Suicide: What the Evidence Shows,” New York Times, August 17, 2017; and “Increased Levels of Anxiety and Depression as Teenage Experience Changes over Time,” Nuffield Foundation, March 14, 2012, https://bit.ly/1Eo4815。
27 Gregg Henriques, “The College Student Mental Health Crisis,” Psychology Today, February 15, 2014, https://bit.ly/2wkJ1Pc.
28 即如Bruce Dick and B. Jane Ferguson, “Health for the World’s Adolescents: A Second Chance in the Second Decade,” Journal of Adolescent Health 56, no. 1 (2015): 3–6注文所示。
29 Ibid.
30 Bichell, “Suicide Rates Climb.”
31 Jean M. Twenge et al., “It’s Beyond My Control: A Cross-Temporal Meta-Analysis of Increasing Externality in Locus of Control, 1960–2002,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 8 (2004): 308–19; J. Twenge et al., “Birth Cohort Increases in Psychopathology Among Young Americans, 1938–2007: A Cross-Temporal Meta-Analysis of the MMPI,” Clinical Psychology Review 30 (2010): 145–54. 關於內在價值與外在價值的歷史數據，參見J. H. Pryor et al., The American Freshman: Forty-Year Trends, 1966–2006 (Los Angeles: Higher Education Research Institute, 2007)。
32 Pryor et al., The American Freshman.
33 “Think You Know the Next Gen Investor? Think Again,” UBS Investor Watch, 1Q 2014, https://bit.ly/2xcc3Rj.
34 “Millennials in Adulthood: Detached from Institutions, Networked with Friends,” Pew Research Center, March 7, 2014, https://pewrsr.ch/2MHYSgN.
35 Richard Fry, “For First Time in Modern Era, Living with Parents Edges Out Other Living Arrangements for 18‑to 34-Year-Olds,” Pew Research Center, May 24, 2016, https://pewrsr.ch/25jN9ga; Richard Fry, “More Millennials Living with Family Despite Improved Job Market,” Pew Research Center, July 29, 2015, https://pewrsr.ch/1VNfQLa.
36 Richard Fry, “It’s Becoming More Common for Young Adults to Live at Home—and for Longer Stretches,” Pew Research Center, May 5, 2017, https://pewrsr.ch/2pOttBM.
37 Christine Hassler, 20 Something Manifesto: Quarter-Lifers Speak Out About Who They Are, What They Want, and How to Get It (Novato, CA: New World Library, 2008); Robin Marantz Henig, “What Is It About 20-Somethings?,” New York Times Magazine, August 18, 2010.
38 ２０１７年我與威斯康辛大學畢業生梅格的訪談。
39 “#StatusofMind,” Royal Society for Public Health, n.d., https://bit.ly/2t1OI68.
40 “PayScale Releases Tech Employers Compared 2016.”
41 Noam Scheiber, “The Brutal Ageism of Tech: Years of Experience, Plenty of Talent, Completely Obsolete,” New Republic, March 23, 2014, https://bit.ly/2pSIeS2.
42 Ibid.
43 Ibid.
44 Sarah McBride, “Special Report: Silicon Valley’s Dirty Secret—Age Bias,” Reuters, November 17, 2012, https://reut.rs/2pbXf1P.
45 Kenneth Terrell, “Age Discrimination Goes Online,” AARP Bulletin, December 2017, https://bit.ly/2nJFrgv; David Neumark, Ian Burn, and Patrick Button, “Age Discrimination and Hiring of Older Workers,” Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, February 27, 2017, https://bit.ly/2MvCSG5.
46 Kelly O. Scott, “Age Discrimination Claims Remain Popular,” Ervin Cohen & Jessup, May 16, 2013, https://bit.ly/2p4u68v.
47 “Diversity in High Tech,” U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, n.d., https://bit.ly/1TsiNzi.
48 Jennifer Schramm, “Unemployment Rate for Those Ages 55+ Increases in December,” AARP, January 5, 2018, https://bit.ly/2Qs0Zs4.
49 Sara E. Rix, “Long-Term Unemployment: Great Risks and Consequences for Older Workers,” AARP Public Policy Institute, February 12, 2015, http://bit.ly/2xjQlfl.
50 Mark Miller, “Older American Workers Are Still Struggling to Find Jobs,” Fortune, September 8, 2016.
51 Rix, “Long-Term Unemployment.”
52 Alexander Monge-Naranjo and Faisal Sohail, “Age and Gender Differences in Long-Term Unemployment: Before and After the Great Recession” (Economic Synopses, no. 26, 2015).
53 David Neumark, Ian Burn, and Patrick Button, “Is It Harder for Older Workers to Find Jobs? New and Improved Evidence from a Field Experiment” (working paper no. 21669, National Bureau of Economic Research, 2015).
54 Maria Heidkamp, Nicole Corre, and Carl E. Van Horn, “The New Unemployables,” Center on Aging and Work at Boston College, October 5, 2012, https://bit.ly/2NDFOoA. 事實上，就業市場對年長的男女都一樣不友善，參見“Millions of Men Are Missing from the Job Market,” editorial, New York Times, October 16, 2016; Lydia DePillis, “Losing a Job Is Always Terrible. For Workers over 50, It’s Worse,” Washington Post, March 30, 2015; Miller, “Older American Workers Are Still Struggling to Find Jobs”; Ashton Applewhite, “You’re How Old? We’ll Be in Touch,” New York Times, September 3, 2016。
55 Michael Moynihan, “Jonah Lehrer’s Deceptions,” Tablet, July 30, 2012.
56 Joe Coscarelli, “Jonah Lehrer’s Self-Plagiarism Issues Are Snowballing,” New York, June 20, 2012.
57 Jennifer Senior, “Review: Jonah Lehrer’s ‘A Book About Love’ Is Another Unoriginal Sin,” New York Times, July 6, 2016.
58 史考特．孟德爾的話引自Neda Ulaby, “ ‘The Lies Are Over’: A Journalist Unravels,” NPR, July 31, 2012。
59 只要Google一下就可以找到一大堆知名的大器晚成事例，此處只列舉一小部分。
第二章 以能力為衡量標準的殘酷謬誤
1 比爾．蓋茲的人生，包括他中學、大學以及早期的微軟生涯，都有很詳盡的紀錄。我特別推薦Stephen Manes, Gates: How Microsoft’s Mogul Reinvented an Industry and Made Himself the Richest Man in America (New York: Touchstone, 1994). １９９２年４月與９月，我為了《上風》和《富比士ＡＳＡＰ》兩本雜誌訪問蓋茲數個小時。１９９３年10月，我與蓋茲一起旅行５天。當時我們在華盛頓的四季酒店碰頭，我陪著他一起去推廣微軟新推出的商用軟體套件Office 4.0。這趟商務之旅途經波士頓、紐約、芝加哥以及奧克蘭。我們搭乘達美快線航空與聯合航空進行這趟旅程，在飛機上、在加長型禮車裡、在旅館的會議室中，我們聊了好幾個小時。之後我完成了一篇報導“Five Days with Bill Gates,” Forbes ASAP, February 28, 1994。１９９０年代，身為微軟執行長的蓋茲，在他的領域呼風喚雨。我發現他的動作迅速、能量充沛、生氣蓬勃、自以為是、樂趣橫生，但也帶有不懷好意的諷刺和尖銳。在我們的對話中，蓋茲多次說微軟這間高智商公司「贏過甲骨文，和高盛一樣好」。「智商」在我們的多數對話中被提及時，都是作為評價的標準。最後，我必須要說，比爾．蓋茲在如今的公眾形象已經非常不同了：他從１９９０年代的善變人格，轉變為今日審慎的全球慈善家。
2 到目前為止，關於智力測驗與ＳＡＴ測驗的歷史，以及兩者之間的關係，最好的著作是Nicholas Lemann, The Big Test: The Secret History of the American Meritocracy (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1999)。
3 Ibid.
4 Ibid.
5 Ibid.
6 Lewis M. Terman and Melita H. Oden, The Gifted Child Grows Up: Twenty-Five Years’ Follow-Up of a Superior Group (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1947).
7 Nicholas Lemann, The Big Test: The Secret History of the American Meritocracy.
8 Jerry Z. Muller, The Tyranny of Metrics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018).
9 Maya Kossoff, “41 of Google’s Toughest Interview Questions,” Inc., n.d., http://bit.ly/2CRBrC4.
10 Annie Murphy Paul, The Cult of Personality Testing: How Personality Tests Are Leading Us to Miseducate Our Children, Mismanage Our Companies, and Misunderstand Ourselves (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010).
11 Frederick Winslow Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (New York: Harper, 1914).
12 Maduakolam Ireh, “Scientific Management Still Endures in Education,” ERIC, June 2016, https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED566616. 亦參見Shawn Gude, “The Industrial Classroom,” Jacobin, April 21, 2013, http://bit.ly/2NQSOqT。
13 Todd Rose, The End of Average: How We Succeed in a World That Values Sameness (New York: HarperCollins, 2015).
14 Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964).
15 Todd Rose, The End of Average: How We Succeed in a World That Values Sameness; Scott Barry Kaufman, Ungifted: Intelligence Redefined (New York: Basic Books, 2013).
16 Brad Stone, The Everything Store: Jeff Bezos and the Age of Amazon (New York: Random House, 2013).
17 Rich Karlgaard, “Atoms Versus Bits: Where to Find Innovation,” Forbes, January 23, 2013.
18 Nicholas P. Negroponte, “Products and Services for Computer Networks,” Scientific American 265, no. 3 (1991): 106–15.
19 Mark Penn and Andrew Stein, “Back to the Center, Democrats,” New York Times, July 6, 2017.
20 John Carreyrou, Bad Blood: Secrets and Lies in a Silicon Valley Startup (New York: Knopf, 2018). 亦參見John Carreyrou, “Hot Startup Theranos Has Struggled with Its Blood-Test Technology,” Wall Street Journal, October 21, 2015。
21 霍姆斯９歲時寫給她父親的信。“The World’s Youngest Self-Made Female Billionaire,” CBS News, April 16, 2015.
22 Janelle Jones, John Schmitt, and Valerie Wilson, “50 Years After the Kerner Commission,” Economic Policy Institute, February 26, 2018, http://bit.ly/2pivww9.
23 麥可．喬丹擁有ＮＢＡ夏洛特黃蜂隊90％的股份。魔術強森參與的管理集團，以20億美元從法蘭克．麥考特手中買下ＭＬＢ洛杉磯道奇隊。
24 “Forbes Releases 2018 List of America’s Richest Self-Made Women, a Ranking of the Successful Women Entrepreneurs in the Country,” Forbes, July 11, 2018, https://bit.ly/2NI4zje.
25 Tim Cook, “Tim Cook Speaks Up,” Bloomberg, October 30, 2014.
26 Gary R. Hicks and Tien-Tsung Lee, “Public Attitudes Toward Gays and Lesbians: Trends and Predictors,” Journal of Homosexuality 51, no. 2 (2006): 57–77; Andrew Markus, “Attitudes to Multiculturalism and Cultural Diversity,” in Multiculturalism and Integration: A Harmonious Relationship, ed. James Jupp and Michael Clyne (Canberra: ANU E Press, 2011). 亦參見“4. Attitudes Toward Increasing Diversity in the U.S.,” Pew Research Center, February 16, 2017, https://pewrsr.ch/2p6nkza; Hannah Fingerhut, “Most Americans Express Positive Views of Country’s Growing Racial and Ethnic Diversity,” Pew Research Center, June 14, 2018, https://pewrsr.ch/2p4LgTr。
27 J. D. Vance, Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis (New York: HarperCollins, 2016).
28 Larry Summers, “Men Without Work,” RSS Archive, September 26, 2016, http://bit.ly/2CRCIsQ.
29 Nicholas Eberstadt, Men Without Work: America’s Invisible Crisis (West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton Press, 2016).
30 “Artificial Intelligence, Automation, and the Economy,” Executive Office of the President, December 20, 2016, http://bit.ly/2xmVJOD.
31 Andrea Riquier, “White House: Robots May Take Half of Our Jobs, and We Should Embrace It,” MarketWatch, December 31, 2016, https://on.mktw.net/2xcV6q0.
32 David H. Autor, Frank Levy, and Richard J. Murnane, “Upstairs, Downstairs: Computers and Skills on Two Floors of a Large Bank,” ILR Review 55, no. 3 (2002): 432–47.
第三章 個人發展的多元步調
1 艾許莉（化名）是在２０１６年１月23日，於亞利桑那州斯科茨代爾的駝峰旅館內所舉辦的春嶺女子學院創辦人珍妮．珂妮的退休宴會，說了她的故事。
2 隨著核磁共振造影科技的發明，對兒童、青少年以及成人認知發展的研究急速成長，對前額葉皮質、執行功能、邊緣系統、白質以及髓磷脂等研究也愈來愈深入。更多關於青少年認知發展的研究，參見Laurence Steinberg, “Cognitive and Affective Development in Adolescence,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9, no. 2 (2005): 69–74; Beatriz Luna et al., “Maturation of Widely Distributed Brain Function Subserves Cognitive Development,” Neuroimage 13, no. 5 (2001): 786–93; Sarah-Jayne Blakemore and Suparna Choudhury, “Development of the Adolescent Brain: Implications for Executive Function and Social Cognition,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 47, nos. 3–4 (2006): 296–312; B. J. Casey, Jay N. Giedd, and Kathleen M. Thomas, “Structural and Functional Brain Development and Its Relation to Cognitive Development,” Biological Psychology 54, nos. 1–3 (2000): 241–57; James J. Gross, “Emotion Regulation in Adulthood: Timing Is Everything,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 10, no. 6 (2001): 214–19; Zoltan Nagy, Helena Westerberg, and Torkel Klingberg, “Maturation of White Matter Is Associated with the Development of Cognitive Functions During Childhood,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 16, no. 7 (2004): 1227–33; Tomáš Paus, “Mapping Brain Maturation and Cognitive Development During Adolescence,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9, no. 2 (2005): 60–68; Catalina J. Hooper et al., “Adolescents’ Performance on the Iowa Gambling Task: Implications for the Development of Decision Making and Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex,” Developmental Psychology 40, no. 6 (2004): 1148; Sara B. Johnson, Robert W. Blum, and Jay N. Giedd, “Adolescent Maturity and the Brain: The Promise and Pitfalls of Neuroscience Research in Adolescent Health Policy,” Journal of Adolescent Health 45, no. 3 (2009): 216–21; Nitin Gogtay et al., “Dynamic Mapping of Human Cortical Development During Childhood Through Early Adulthood,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101, no. 21 (2004): 8174–79; David Moshman, “Cognitive Development Beyond Childhood,” DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska–Lincoln, 1998; and Sarah-Jayne Blakemore et al., “Adolescent Development of the Neural Circuitry for Thinking About Intentions,” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 2, no. 2 (2007): 130–39。比較容易的理解，可參見Carl Zimmer, “You’re an Adult. Your Brain, Not So Much,” New York Times, December 21, 2016。
3 Joaquín M. Fuster, “Frontal Lobe and Cognitive Development,” Journal of Neurocytology 31, nos. 3–5 (2002): 373–85; Jay N. Giedd, “The Teen Brain: Insights from Neuroimaging,” Journal of Adolescent Health 42, no. 4 (2008): 335–43; Jay N. Giedd, “Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Adolescent Brain,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1021, no. 1 (2004): 77–85; and Jay N. Giedd et al., “Brain Development During Childhood and Adolescence: A Longitudinal MRI Study,” Nature Neuroscience 2, no. 10 (1999): 861.
4 Laurence Steinberg, “The Case for Delayed Adulthood,” New York Times, September 19, 2014.
5 Jeffrey Jensen Arnett, Emerging Adulthood: The Winding Road from the Late Teens Through the Twenties (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004); Jeffrey Jensen Arnett, “Emerging Adulthood: A Theory of Development from the Late Teens Through the Twenties,” American Psychologist 55, no. 5 (2000): 469; Jeffrey Jensen Arnett, “Emerging Adulthood: What Is It, and What Is It Good For?,” Child Development Perspectives 1, no. 2 (2007): 68–73; Jeffrey Jensen Arnett, Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood (Boston: Pearson, 2014). See also Robin Marantz Henig, “What Is It About 20-Somethings?,” New York Times Magazine, August 18, 2010.
6 ２０１８年７月我與紐約大學神經科學家埃爾克諾恩．高德伯的訪談。
7 引自Celia R. Baker, “How Taking a ‘Gap Year’ Between High School and College Can Improve Your Life,” Deseret News, November 4, 2013。
8 Phil Knight, Shoe Dog (New York: Scribner’s, 2016).
9 Kyle DeNuccio, “Independence Days: My Perfect Imperfect Gap Year,” New York Times, April 8, 2017.
10 Andrew J. Martin, “Should Students Have a Gap Year? Motivation and Performance Factors Relevant to Time Out After Completing School,” Journal of Educational Psychology 102, no. 3 (2010): 561.
11 Nina Hoe, American Gap Association National Alumni Survey Report (Temple University Institute for Survey Research, 2015), http://bit.ly/2NLNx47.
12 Kate Simpson. “Dropping Out or Signing Up? The Professionalisation of Youth Travel,” Antipode 37, no. 3 (2005): 447-69.
13 Hoe, American Gap Association National Alumni Survey Report.
14 Valerie Strauss, “Why Harvard ‘Encourages’ Students to Take a Gap Year. Just like Malia Obama Is Doing,” Washington Post, May 1, 2016.
15 ２０１８年我與馬克．米爾斯的訪談。
16 Joshua K. Hartshorne and Laura T. Germine, “When Does Cognitive Functioning Peak? The Asynchronous Rise and Fall of Different Cognitive Abilities Across the Life Span,” Psychological Science 26, no. 4 (2015): 433–43; Alvin Powell, “Smarter by the Minute, Sort Of,” Harvard Gazette, March 19, 2015, http://bit.ly/2NaCf9W; and Anne Trafton, “The Rise and Fall of Cognitive Skills,” MIT News, March 6, 2015, http://bit.ly/2CPin7s.
17 K. Warner Schaie, Sherry L. Willis, and Grace I. L. Caskie, “The Seattle Longitudinal Study: Relationship Between Personality and Cognition,” Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition 11, nos. 2–3 (2004): 304–24; K. Warner Schaie, “The Seattle Longitudinal Studies of Adult Intelligence,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 2, no. 6 (1993): 171–75. See also K. Warner Schaie, ed., Longitudinal Studies of Adult Psychological Development (New York: Guilford Press, 1983); K. Warner Schaie, Intellectual Development in Adulthood: The Seattle Longitudinal Study (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); K. Warner Schaie, Developmental Influences on Adult Intelligence: The Seattle Longitudinal Study (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005); K. Warner Schaie, “Intellectual Development in Adulthood,” in Handbook of the Psychology of Aging, ed. James E. Birren, Klaus Warner Schaie, Ronald P. Abeles, Margaret Gatz, and Timothy A. Salthouse, 4th ed. (1996); and K. Warner Schaie, “The Course of Adult Intellectual Development,” American Psychologist 49, no. 4 (1994): 304.
18 Richard Seven, “Study on Aging Still Going Strong Some 50 Years Later,” Seattle Times, November 24, 2008.
19 Melissa Lee Phillips, “The Mind at Midlife,” Monitor on Psychology 42 (2011): 38–41.
20 Ibid.
21 Caroline N. Harada, Marissa C. Natelson Love, and Kristen L. Triebel, “Normal Cognitive Aging,” Clinics in Geriatric Medicine 29, no. 4 (2013): 737–52. 亦參見Cecilia Thorsen, Jan-Eric Gustafsson, and Christina Cliffordson, “The Influence of Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence on the Development of Knowledge and Skills,” British Journal of Educational Psychology 84, no. 4 (2014): 556–70; Andrea Christoforou et al., “GWAS-Based Pathway Analysis Differentiates Between Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence,” Genes, Brain and Behavior 13, no. 7 (2014): 663–74。
22 Phillip Ackerman and Margaret E. Beier, “Trait Complexes, Cognitive Investment, and Domain Knowledge,” in Psychology of Abilities, Competencies, and Expertise, ed. Robert J. Sternberg and Elena L. Grigorenko (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
23 ２０１３年我與梅奧診所肝臟移植專家查爾斯．羅森醫師的訪談。
24 ２０１８年我與埃爾克諾恩．高德伯醫師的訪談。
25 Nicolas Gauvrit et al., “Human Behavioral Complexity Peaks at Age 25,” PLOS Computational Biology 13, no. 4 (2017): e1005408.
26 Ibid.
27 Elkhonon Goldberg, Creativity: The Human Brain in the Age of Innovation (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018). 在２０１８年與埃爾克諾恩．高德伯醫師的訪談中，我確認了他認為「創造力」是會隨著年齡而增加的。
28 狄拉克的詩作收錄於Benjamin F. Jones, “Age and Great Invention,” Review of Economics and Statistics 92, no. 1 (2010)。
29 Benjamin F. Jones and Bruce A. Weinberg, “Age Dynamics in Scientific Creativity,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, no. 47 (2011): 18910–14. 亦參見Benjamin Jones, E. J. Reedy, and Bruce A. Weinberg, “Age and Scientific Genius” (working paper no. 19866, National Bureau of Economic Research, 2014), http://www.nber.org/papers/w19866。
30 Pagan Kennedy, “To Be a Genius, Think Like a 94-Year-Old,” New York Times, April 7, 2017.
31 Ibid.
32 Ibid.
33 Robert W. Fairlie et al., “The Kauffman Index 2015: Startup Activity| National Trends,” May 2015, doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2613479.
34 艾瑞克森因其１９５９年提出的八階段心理發展理論而聞名。第七階段，也就是40至65歲時，稱為「傳承創新對遲滯不前」，在這個階段「人們需要創造或培養比他們更長久的東西，通常會有學徒或是創造對其他人有利的積極變化」。參見Saul McLeod, “Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development,” Simply Psychology, 2018, http://bit.ly/2Multx9。
第四章 等待是值得的：大器晚成者的六個優勢
1 知名兒童心理治療師布魯斯．佩里說：「人生中再沒有比幼兒期的好奇心更有力量的時期了。」參見Bruce D. Perry. “Why Young Children Are Curious,” Scholastic, n.d., http://bit.ly/2xgGAxo。
2 “The 100 Best Companies to Work For,” Fortune, 2017, https://for.tn/2QoKrl3.
3 Michael Hvisdos and Janet Gerhard, “Hiring for Curiosity, the Overlooked Key to Business Innovation,” Recruiter, October 3, 2017, http://bit.ly/2xnqyCK.
4 Don Peppers, “Why Curiosity Is a Prerequisite for Innovation,” Inc., September 21, 2016, http://bit.ly/2Mkdnke.
5 “The Neuroscience Behind Curiosity and Motivation,” Cube, April 21, 2015, http://bit.ly/2pj5yZJ.
6 Sakaki Michiko, Ayano Yagi, and Kou Murayama, “Curiosity in Old Age: A Possible Key to Achieving Adaptive Aging,” Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 88 (May 2018): 106–16.
7 Jeffrey Weiner, “Managing Compassionately,” LinkedIn Pulse, October 15, 2012, http://bit.ly/2xwmoaT.
8 Sasha Zarins and Sara Konrath, “Changes over Time in Compassion-Related Variables in the United States,” in The Oxford Handbook of Compassion Science, ed. Emma M. Seppälä et al. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016); Sara H. Konrath, Edward H. O’Brien, and Courtney Hsing, “Changes in Dispositional Empathy in American College Students over Time: A Meta-Analysis,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 15, no. 2 (2011): 180–98.
9 Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and Kevin Rathunde, “The Psychology of Wisdom: An Evolutionary Interpretation,” in Wisdom: Its Nature, Origins, and Development, ed. Robert J. Sternberg (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); V. P. Clayton and J. E. Birren, “The Development of Wisdom Across the Life Span: A Reexamination of an Ancient Topic,” in Life-Span Development and Behavior, ed. P. B. Baltes and O. G. Brim, Jr. (San Diego: Academic Press, 1980); and Monika Ardelt, “Antecedents and Effects of Wisdom in Old Age: A Longitudinal Perspective on Aging Well,” Research on Aging 22, no. 4 (2000): 360–94.
10 Monika Ardelt, “Empirical Assessment of a Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale,” Research on Aging 25, no. 3 (2003): 275–324.
11 Phyllis Korkki, “The Science of Older and Wiser,” New York Times, March 12, 2014.
12 ２０１５年記者Susan Salter Reynolds與丹尼爾．布朗的訪談。
13 Shimul Melwani, Jennifer S. Mueller, and Jennifer R. Overbeck, “Looking Down: The Influence of Contempt and Compassion on Emergent Leadership Categorizations,” Journal of Applied Psychology 97, no. 6 (2012): 1171.
14 Hershey H. Friedman and Miriam Gerstein, “Leading with Compassion: The Key to Changing the Organizational Culture and Achieving Success,” Psychosociological Issues in Human Resource Management 5, no. 1 (2017); M. Gemma Cherry et al., “Emotional Intelligence in Medical Education: A Critical Review,” Medical Education 48, no. 5 (2014): 468–78; Matthew J. Williams et al., “Examining the Factor Structures of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire and the Self-Compassion Scale,” Psychological Assessment 26, no. 2 (2014): 407; and Clara Strauss et al., “What Is Compassion and How Can We Measure It? A Review of Definitions and Measures,” Clinical Psychology Review 47 (2016): 15–27.
15 J. Williams, G. Mark, and Willem Kuyken, “Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy: A Promising New Approach to Preventing Depressive Relapse,” British Journal of Psychiatry 200, no. 5 (2012): 359–60.
16 Rajendra Sisodia, David Wolfe, and Jagdish N. Sheth, Firms of Endearment: How World-Class Companies Profit from Passion and Purpose (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Wharton, 2007).
17 Kim Cameron et al., “Effects of Positive Practices on Organizational Effectiveness,” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 47, no. 3 (2011): 266–308.
18 Emma Seppälä, The Happiness Track: How to Apply the Science of Happiness to Accelerate Your Success (New York: HarperCollins, 2017).
19 This Emotional Life: My Transformation from High School Dropout to Surgeon (documentary), PBS, aired January 4, 2011.
20 關於瑞克．安克爾與他投球失憶症的故事，我特別喜歡作家Charles Krauthammer最近的“The Return of the Natural,” Washington Post, August 17, 2007。Krauthammer因為在潛水時出了意外，導致頸部以下癱瘓。
21 珍娜．伊凡諾維奇的故事取自其官網Evanovich.com之「作者生平」。Janet Evanovich, n.d., https://bit.ly/2Qnj9LE; and Debra Nussbaum, “In Person: Imagine Trenton. One Author Did,” New York Times, November 3, 2002.
22 “Family and Friends Praise Ang Lee’s Quiet Dedication,” Taipei Times, March 7, 2006.
23 “All About Resilience,” Psychology Today, n.d., http://bit.ly/2D6hY0M.
24 Dr. Morton Shaevitz, Cuida Health Blog, January 23, 2018, http://bit.ly/2xvyilD.
25 亞當．格蘭特的話引自Tara Parker-Pope, “How to Build Resilience in Midlife,” New York Times, July 25, 2017。
26 Joshua D. Margolis and Paul G. Stoltz, “How to Bounce Back from Adversity,” Harvard Business Review 88, nos. 1–2 (2010): 86–92.
27 Henry Bodkin, “Teenagers Are Hard Wired to Be Selfish, Say Scientists,” Telegraph, October 6, 2016, http://bit.ly/2CQVh08.
28 ２０１６年我與卡蘿．杜維克的訪談。
29 譚美．舒茲的驚人事蹟在２０１８年４月17日，西南航空１３８０號班機事故後被廣泛報導。我推薦讀者可閱讀Eli Rosenberg, “She Landed a Southwest Plane After an Engine Exploded. She Wasn’t Supposed to Be Flying That Day,” Washington Post, May 10, 2018。
30 “MidAmerica Nazarene University: Overview,” U.S. News & World Report, http://bit.ly/2OpH0c4. 該校的錄取率參見“MidAmerica Nazarene University: Ranking Indicators,” http://bit.ly/2CQV51e；該校排名參見“Western New Mexico University: Rankings,” http://bit.ly/2OkRvgS。
31 Tom Wolfe, The Right Stuff (New York: Random House, 2005).
32 Samantha Schmidt, “ ‘Nerves of Steel’: She Calmly Landed the Southwest Flight, Just as You’d Expect of a Former Fighter Pilot,” Washington Post, April 18, 2018.
33 Heidi Grant Halvorson, “How Happiness Changes with Age,” Atlantic, May 28, 2013.
34 Cassie Mogilner, Sepandar D. Kamvar, and Jennifer Aaker, “The Shifting Meaning of Happiness,” Social Psychological and Personality Science 2, no. 4 (2011): 395–402.
35 Robert Sanders, “Researchers Find Out Why Some Stress Is Good for You,” Berkeley News, April 16, 2013, http://bit.ly/2pkaBcm. 亦參見Elizabeth D. Kirby et al., “Acute Stress Enhances Adult Rat Hippocampal Neurogenesis and Activation of Newborn Neurons Via Secreted Astrocytic FGF2,” eLife, April 16, 2013, http://bit.ly/2pi8NjT。
36 Travis Bradberry, “How Successful People Stay Calm,” Forbes, February 6, 2014, http://bit.ly/2x8XWMK.
37 Brent Gleeson, Taking Point: A Navy SEAL’s 10 Fail-Safe Principles for Leading Through Change (New York: Touchstone, 2018).
38 １９９２-１９９４年間我與比爾．華許的多次訪談。我們在華許位於史丹佛的辦公室，討論他在《富比士ＡＳＡＰ》專欄要寫的創新管理方式。在一次訪談中，他告訴我，他在觀賞高中籃球隊伍在練習時執行全場緊迫盯人的戰術，才有在美式足球中採取短傳戰術的洞見。
39 Elkhonon Goldberg, Creativity: The Human Brain in the Age of Innovation (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018).
40 維維安．克萊頓的話引自Stephen S. Hall, “The Older-and-Wiser Hypothesis,” New York Times Magazine, May 6, 2007; Phyllis Korkki, “The Science of Older and Wiser,” New York Times, March 12, 2014。
41 Paul B. Baltes and Ursula M. Staudinger, “The Search for a Psychology of Wisdom,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 2, no. 3 (1993): 75–81; Paul B. Baltes, Jacqui Smith, and Ursula M. Staudinger, “Wisdom and Successful Aging,” in Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, ed. T. Sonderegger (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992); Ursula M. Staudinger, Jacqui Smith, and Paul B. Baltes, “Wisdom-Related Knowledge in a Life Review Task: Age Differences and the Role of Professional Specialization,” Psychology and Aging 7, no. 2 (1992): 271; and Hall, “Older-and-Wiser Hypothesis”; Korkki, “Science of Older and Wiser.”
42 ２０１８年３月我與朱莉．史威特的訪談。
43 Monika Ardelt, “Wisdom and Life Satisfaction in Old Age,” Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 52, no. 1 (1997): 15–27; Ardelt, “Antecedents and Effects of Wisdom in Old Age”; Francesca G. E. Happé, Ellen Winner, and Hiram Brownell, “The Getting of Wisdom: Theory of Mind in Old Age,” Developmental Psychology 34, no. 2 (1998): 358; Ursula M. Staudinger, “Older and Wiser? Integrating Results on the Relationship Between Age and Wisdom-Related Performance,” International Journal of Behavioral Development 23, no. 3 (1999): 641–64.
44 烏蘇拉．施陶丁格的話引自Anil Ananthaswamy, “The Wisdom of the Aging Brain,” Nautilus, May 12, 2016, http://bit.ly/2xrFlvy。
45 Goldberg, Creativity. 亦參見Barbara Strauch, The Secret Life of the Grown-Up Brain: The Surprising Talents of the Middle-Aged Mind (New York: Penguin, 2010)。
46 Thomas M. Hess and Corinne Auman, “Aging and Social Expertise: The Impact of Trait-Diagnostic Information on Impressions of Others,” Psychology and Aging 16, no. 3 (2001): 497; Christina M. Leclerc and Thomas M. Hess, “Age Differences in the Bases for Social Judgments: Tests of a Social Expertise Perspective,” Experimental Aging Research 33, no. 1 (2007): 95–120; Thomas M. Hess, Nicole L. Osowski, and Christina M. Leclerc, “Age and Experience Influences on the Complexity of Social Inferences,” Psychology and Aging 20, no. 3 (2005): 447; Thomas M. Hess, Daniel C. Rosenberg, and Sandra J. Waters, “Motivation and Representational Processes in Adulthood: The Effects of Social Accountability and Information Relevance,” Psychology and Aging 16, no. 4 (2001): 629.
47 Strauch, The Secret Life of the Grown-Up Brain. 亦參見Trey Hedden and John D. E. Gabrieli, “Insights into the Ageing Mind: A View from Cognitive Neuroscience,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 5, no. 2 (2004): 87。
48 Michael Ramscar et al., “The Myth of Cognitive Decline: Non-Linear Dynamics of Lifelong Learning,” Topics in Cognitive Science 6, no. 1 (2014): 5–42.
49 Ananthaswamy, “The Wisdom of the Aging Brain.” See also Dilip V. Jeste and James C. Harris, “Wisdom—a Neuroscience Perspective,” JAMA 304, no. 14 (2010): 1602–3; Colin A. Depp and Dilip V. Jeste, “Definitions and Predictors of Successful Aging: A Comprehensive Review of Larger Quantitative Studies,” American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 14, no. 1 (2006): 6–20; Thomas W. Meeks and Dilip V. Jeste, “Neurobiology of Wisdom: A Literature Overview,” Archives of General Psychiatry 66, no. 4 (2009): 355–65; Dilip V. Jeste et al., “Expert Consensus on Characteristics of Wisdom: A Delphi Method Study,” Gerontologist 50, no. 5 (2010): 668–80; Dilip V. Jeste and Andrew J. Oswald, “Individual and Societal Wisdom: Explaining the Paradox of Human Aging and High Well-Being,” Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes 77, no. 4 (2014): 317–30.
50 Ananthaswamy, “The Wisdom of the Aging Brain.” 亦參見Roberto Cabeza, “Hemispheric Asymmetry Reduction in Older Adults: The HAROLD Model,” Psychology and Aging 17, no. 1 (2002): 85。
51 Simon W. Davis et al., “Frequency-Specific Neuromodulation of Local and Distant Connectivity in Aging and Episodic Memory Function,” Human Brain Mapping 38, no. 12 (2017): 5987–6004; Patricia A. Reuter-Lorenz, Louise Stanczak, and Andrea C. Miller, “Neural Recruitment and Cognitive Aging: Two Hemispheres Are Better Than One, Especially as You Age,” Psychological Science 10, no. 6 (1999): 494–500; Patricia A. Reuter-Lorenz et al., “Age Differences in the Frontal Lateralization of Verbal and Spatial Working Memory Revealed by PET,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 12, no. 1 (2000): 174–87; Kenneth Hugdahl, “Lateralization of Cognitive Processes in the Brain,” Acta Psychologica 105, nos. 2–3 (2000): 211–35; Roberto Cabeza et al., “Task-Independent and Task-Specific Age Effects on Brain Activity During Working Memory, Visual Attention and Episodic Retrieval,” Cerebral Cortex 14, no. 4 (2004): 364–75; and Patricia A. Reuter-Lorenz, “New Visions of the Aging Mind and Brain,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 6, no. 9 (2002): 394–400.
52 Roberto Cabeza et al., “Aging Gracefully: Compensatory Brain Activity in High-Performing Older Adults,” Neuroimage 17, no. 3 (2002): 1394–402.
53 Strauch, The Secret Life of the Grown-Up Brain. 亦參見George Bartzokis et al., “Age-Related Changes in Frontal and Temporal Lobe Volumes in Men: A Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study,” Archives of General Psychiatry 58, no. 5 (2001): 461–65。
54 Ardelt, “Antecedents and Effects of Wisdom in Old Age.”
第五章 創造你自己的健康文化
1 ２０１６年我與艾瑞克．瓦爾的訪談。我在２０１４年Vistage會議上結識了瓦爾，並震懾於他舞台表演所蘊含的情感力量。
2 在形塑我們的信念、人格、抱負乃至於未來上，很少有人像父母一樣具有如此重要的地位。在這個主題上有大量的研究文獻，諸如：E. Mavis Hetherington, Martha Cox, and Roger Cox, “Effects of Divorce on Parents and Children,” in Nontraditional Families: Parenting and Child Development, ed. Michael E. Lamb (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1982); Joan Kaufman and Edward Zigler, “Do Abused Children Become Abusive Parents?,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 57, no. 2 (1987): 186–92; ALSPAC Study Team, “ALSPAC—the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children,” Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 15, no. 1 (2001): 74–87; Kathleen V. Hoover-Dempsey and Howard M. Sandler, “Parental Involvement in Children’s Education: Why Does It Make a Difference?,” Teachers College Record 97, no. 2 (1995): 310–31; Gillian Pugh, Erica De’Ath, and Celia Smith, Confident Parents, Confident Children: Policy and Practice in Parent Education and Support (Washington, DC: National Children’s Bureau, 1994); Concha Delgado-Gaitan, Literacy for Empowerment: The Role of Parents in Children’s Education (London: Routledge, 1990); Sylvia Palmer and Larry Cochran, “Parents as Agents of Career Development,” Journal of Counseling Psychology 35, no. 1 (1988): 71; Ashton D. Trice and Linda Knapp, “Relationship of Children’s Career Aspirations to Parents’ Occupations,” Journal of Genetic Psychology 153, no. 3 (1992): 355–57; Richard A. Young and John D. Friesen, “The Intentions of Parents in Influencing the Career Development of Their Children,” Career Development Quarterly 40, no. 3 (1992): 198–206; and Ramona Paloş and Loredana Drobot, “The Impact of Family Influence on the Career Choice of Adolescents,” Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences 2, no. 2 (2010): 3407–11。
3 Academy of Achievement: A Museum of Living History １９９６年６月29日所出版對勞勃．辛密克斯的訪談。
4 Jill Antonishak, Erin L. Sutfin, and N. Dickon Reppucci, “Community Influence on Adolescent Development,” in Handbook of Adolescent Behavioral Problems: Evidence-Based Approaches to Prevention and Treatment, ed. Thomas P. Gullotta and Gerald R. Adams (Boston: Springer, 2005); Cristina L. Reitz-Krueger et al., “Community Influence on Adolescent Development,” in Handbook of Adolescent Behavioral Problems: Evidence-Based Approaches to Prevention and Treatment, ed. Thomas P. Gullotta, Robert W. Plant, and Melanie A. Evans (Boston: Springer, 2015); Margo Gardner and Laurence Steinberg, “Peer Influence on Risk Taking, Risk Preference, and Risky Decision Making in Adolescence and Adulthood: An Experimental Study,” Developmental Psychology 41, no. 4 (2005): 625; Jeanne Brooks-Gunn et al., “Do Neighborhoods Influence Child and Adolescent Development?,” American Journal of Sociology 99, no. 2 (1993): 353–95; Tamara F. Mangleburg, Patricia M. Doney, and Terry Bristol, “Shopping with Friends and Teens’ Susceptibility to Peer Influence,” Journal of Retailing 80, no. 2 (2004): 101–16; Karl E. Bauman and Susan T. Ennett, “On the Importance of Peer Influence for Adolescent Drug Use: Commonly Neglected Considerations,” Addiction 91, no. 2 (1996): 185–98; and Jason Chein et al., “Peers Increase Adolescent Risk Taking by Enhancing Activity in the Brain’s Reward Circuitry,” Developmental Science 14, no. 2 (2011): F1–F10.
5 Laurence Steinberg and Kathryn C. Monahan, “Age Differences in Resistance to Peer Influence,” Developmental Psychology 43, no. 6 (2007): 1531; Gardner and Steinberg, “Peer Influence on Risk Taking.”
6 J. D. Vance, Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis (New York: HarperCollins, 2016).
7 很難準確估量健康對貧困的影響，但是貧困對兒童的直接、長期影響，則有大量的研究。參見Greg J. Duncan and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, “Family Poverty, Welfare Reform, and Child Development,” Child Development 71, no. 1 (2000): 188–96; Gary W. Evans, “The Environment of Childhood Poverty,” American Psychologist 59, no. 2 (2004): 77; Rebecca M. Ryan, Rebecca C. Fauth, and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, “Childhood Poverty: Implications for School Readiness and Early Childhood Education,” in Handbook of Research on the Education of Young Children, ed. Bernard Spodek and Olivia N. Saracho, 2nd ed. (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 2007); Greg J. Duncan et al., “How Much Does Childhood Poverty Affect the Life Chances of Children?,” American Sociological Review 63, no. 3 (1998): 406–23; Gary W. Evans and Pilyoung Kim, “Childhood Poverty and Health: Cumulative Risk Exposure and Stress Dysregulation,” Psychological Science 18, no. 11 (2007): 953–57; Valentina Nikulina, Cathy Spatz Widom, and Sally Czaja, “The Role of Childhood Neglect and Childhood Poverty in Predicting Mental Health, Academic Achievement and Crime in Adulthood,” American Journal of Community Psychology 48, nos. 3–4 (2011): 309–21; J. Lawrence Aber et al., “The Effects of Poverty on Child Health and Development,” Annual Review of Public Health 18, no. 1 (1997): 463–83; Daniel T. Lichter, Michael J. Shanahan, and Erica L. Gardner, “Helping Others? The Effects of Childhood Poverty and Family Instability on Prosocial Behavior,” Youth and Society 34, no. 1 (2002): 89–119; Natalie Slopen et al., “Poverty, Food Insecurity, and the Behavior for Childhood Internalizing and Externalizing Disorders,” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 49, no. 5 (2010): 444–52; Clancy Blair and C. Cybele Raver, “Child Development in the Context of Adversity: Experiential Canalization of Brain and Behavior,” American Psychologist 67, no. 4 (2012): 309; Martha J. Farah et al., “Childhood Poverty: Specific Associations with Neurocognitive Development,” Brain Research 1110, no. 1 (2006): 166–74; and Katherine A. Magnuson and Elizabeth Votruba-Drzal, Enduring Influences of Childhood Poverty (Madison: University of Wisconsin, Institute for Research on Poverty, 2008)。
8 Rakesh Kochhar and Anthony Cilluffo, “How Wealth Inequality Has Changed in the U.S. Since the Great Recession, by Race, Ethnicity and Income,” Pew Research Center, November 1, 2017, https://pewrsr.ch/2NXW6IS.
9 席拉．摩甘的話引自“Dealing with Peer Pressure When You’re an Adult,” UW Health, September 21, 2015, http://bit.ly/2OnPfpq。
10 Samuel P. Huntington, “The Clash of Civilizations?,” Foreign Affairs 72, no. 3 (Summer 1993): 22–49.
11 Hazel R. Markus and Shinobu Kitayama, “Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation,” Psychological Review 98, no. 2 (1991): 224; Robert M. Bond et al., “A 61-Million-Person Experiment in Social Influence and Political Mobilization,” Nature 489, no. 7415 (2012): 295; Teun A. Van Dijk, Society and Discourse: How Social Contexts Influence Text and Talk (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Cristina Bicchieri, The Grammar of Society: The Nature and Dynamics of Social Norms (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005); Michael Marmot et al., Fair Society, Healthy Lives: The Marmot Review (London: Institute of Health Equality, 2010); Peter Aggleton and Richard Parker, Culture, Society and Sexuality: A Reader (London: Routledge, 2002).
12 John Koblin, “How Much Do We Love TV? Let Us Count the Ways,” New York Times, June 30, 2016.
13 有大量作品的主題是針對媒體的力量及其對我們的影響，諸如：Craig A. Anderson et al., “The Influence of Media Violence on Youth,” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 4, no. 3 (2003): 81–110; L. Rowell Huesmann, “Psychological Processes Promoting the Relation Between Exposure to Media Violence and Aggressive Behavior by the Viewer,” Journal of Social Issues 42, no. 3 (1986): 125–39; Albert Bandura, “Social Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication,” in Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research, ed. Jennings Bryant and Mary Beth Oliver, 3rd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2009); Cynthia-Lou Coleman, “The Influence of Mass Media and Interpersonal Communication on Societal and Personal Risk Judgments,” Communication Research 20, no. 4 (1993): 611–28; Kristen E. Van Vonderen and William Kinnally, “Media Effects on Body Image: Examining Media Exposure in the Broader Context of Internal and Other Social Factors,” American Communication Journal 14, no. 2 (2012): 41–57; Rebecca Coleman, “The Becoming of Bodies: Girls, Media Effects, and Body Image,” Feminist Media Studies 8, no. 2 (2008): 163–79; Shelly Grabe, L. Monique Ward, and Janet Shibley Hyde, “The Role of the Media in Body Image Concerns Among Women: A Meta-Analysis of Experimental and Correlational Studies,” Psychological Bulletin 134, no. 3 (2008): 460; Patti M. Valkenburg, Jochen Peter, and Joseph B. Walther, “Media Effects: Theory and Research,” Annual Review of Psychology 67 (2016): 315–38; Christopher P. Barlett, Christopher L. Vowels, and Donald A. Saucier, “Meta-Analyses of the Effects of Media Images on Men’s Body-Image Concerns,” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 27, no. 3 (2008): 279–310; Brad J. Bushman and L. Rowell Huesmann, “Short-Term and Long-Term Effects of Violent Media on Aggression in Children and Adults,” Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 160, no. 4 (2006): 348–52; and Yuko Yamamiya et al., “Women’s Exposure to Thin-and-Beautiful Media Images: Body Image Effects of Media-Ideal Internalization and Impact-Reduction Interventions,” Body Image 2, no. 1 (2005): 74–80。
14 再一次地，這些數值很難精確估算。事實上，我們看了多久的電視或是任何形式的媒體與科技，與我們的習慣與設備有關。此處只是想表示，我們確實花了很多時間在觀看電視。
15 Joan E. Grusec and Paul David Hastings, eds., Handbook of Socialization: Theory and Research (New York: Guilford, 2014).
16 James Shanahan and Michael Morgan, Television and Its Viewers: Cultivation Theory and Research (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999); W. James Potter, “Cultivation Theory and Research: A Conceptual Critique,” Human Communication Research 19, no. 4 (1993): 564–601; W. James Potter, “A Critical Analysis of Cultivation Theory,” Journal of Communication 64, no. 6 (2014): 1015–36; Michael Morgan, James Shanahan, and Nancy Signorielli, “Growing Up with Television: Cultivation Processes,” Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research 3 (2009): 34–49.
17 Rachel I. McDonald and Christian S. Crandall, “Social Norms and Social Influence,” Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences 3 (2015): 147–51; Robert B. Cialdini, Carl A. Kallgren, and Raymond R. Reno, “A Focus Theory of Normative Conduct: A Theoretical Refinement and Reevaluation of the Role of Norms in Human Behavior,” in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, ed. Mark P. Zanna, vol. 24 (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1991); Carl A. Kallgren, Raymond R. Reno, and Robert B. Cialdini, “A Focus Theory of Normative Conduct: When Norms Do and Do Not Affect Behavior,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 26, no. 8 (2000): 1002–12; Maria Knight Lapinski and Rajiv N. Rimal, “An Explication of Social Norms,” Communication Theory 15, no. 2 (2005): 127–47; Ernst Fehr and Urs Fischbacher, “Social Norms and Human Cooperation,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 8, no. 4 (2004): 185–90; Robert B. Cialdini and Melanie R. Trost, “Social Influence: Social Norms, Conformity and Compliance,” in The Handbook of Social Psychology, ed. D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, and G. Lindzey, vol. 2 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998).
18 Solomon E. Asch and H. Guetzkow, “Effects of Group Pressure upon the Modification and Distortion of Judgments,” in Groups, Leadership, and Men: Research in Human Relations, ed. Harold Steere Guetzkow (Pittsburgh: Carnegie Press, 1951); Solomon E. Asch, “Group Forces in the Modification and Distortion of Judgments,” Social Psychology 10 (1952): 450–501.
19 Rod Bond and Peter B. Smith, “Culture and Conformity: A Meta-Analysis of Studies Using Asch’s (1952b, 1956) Line Judgment Task,” Psychological Bulletin 119, no. 1 (1996): 111–37. 值得注意的是，許多的後續研究無法重現阿希實驗的結果，以致部分學者認為「阿希效應」只是１９５０年代順從者的產物。
20 Jessica M. Nolan et al., “Normative Social Influence Is Underdetected,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 34, no. 7 (2008): 913–23; Wesley P. Schultz, Azar M. Khazian, and Adam C. Zaleski, “Using Normative Social Influence to Promote Conservation Among Hotel Guests,” Social Influence 3, no. 1 (2008): 4–23; Rishee K. Jain et al., “Can Social Influence Drive Energy Savings? Detecting the Impact of Social Influence on the Energy Consumption Behavior of Networked Users Exposed to Normative Eco-Feedback,” Energy and Buildings 66 (2013): 119–27.
21 羅伯特．席爾迪尼的話引自Nolan et al., “Normative Social Influence Is Underdetected”。
22 Todd Rose, The End of Average: How We Succeed in a World That Values Sameness (New York: HarperCollins, 2015).
23 Jane Howard, Margaret Mead: A Life (New York: Ballantine Books, 1989).
24 Gregory S. Berns et al., “Neurobiological Correlates of Social Conformity and Independence During Mental Rotation,” Biological Psychiatry 58, no. 3 (2005): 245–53. 亦參見Mirre Stallen, Ale Smidts, and Alan Sanfey, “Peer Influence: Neural Mechanisms Underlying In-Group Conformity,” Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 7 (2013): 50; Mirre Stallen and Alan G. Sanfey, “The Neuroscience of Social Conformity: Implications for Fundamental and Applied Research,” Frontiers in Neuroscience 9 (2015): 337; Juan F. Domínguez D, Sreyneth A. Taing, and Pascal Molenberghs, “Why Do Some Find It Hard to Disagree? An fMRI Study,” Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 9 (2016): 718。
第六章 放棄！給大器晚成者的顛覆建議
1 Charles Duhigg, The Power of Habit: Why We Do What We Do in Life and Business (New York: Random House, 2013); Jocko Willink and Leif Babin, Discipline Equals Freedom (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2017); Kelly McGonigal, The Willpower Instinct: How Self-Control Works, Why It Matters, and What You Can Do to Get More of It (New York: Penguin, 2011); William H. McRaven, Make Your Bed: Little Things That Can Change Your Life ... and Maybe the World (New York: Grand Central Publishing, 2017); Jordan B. Peterson, 12 Rules for Life: An Antidote to Chaos (Toronto: Random House Canada, 2018).
2 ２０１５年記者Susan Salter Reynolds為了本書與丹尼爾．布朗的訪談。
3 Hans Villarica, “The Chocolate-and-Radish Experiment That Birthed the Modern Conception of Willpower,” Atlantic, April 9, 2012. 亦參見R. F. Baumeister et al., “Ego Depletion: Is the Active Self a Limited Resource?,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74, no. 5 (1998): 1252–65; R. F. Baumeister et al., “The Strength Model of Self-Control,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 16 (2007): 351–55; M. Muraven and R. F. Baumeister, “Self-Regulation and Depletion of Limited Resources: Does Self-Control Resemble a Muscle?” Psychological Bulletin 126, no. 2 (2000): 247–59; D. Tice et al., “Restoring the Self: Positive Affect Helps Improve Self-Regulation Following Ego Depletion,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 43, no. 3 (2007): 379–84。
4 Sigmund Freud, The Ego and the Id: Standard Edition, ed. James Strachey (1923; New York: W. W. Norton, 1960).
5 Kenny Moore, Bowerman and the Men of Oregon: The Story of Oregon’s Legendary Coach and Nike’s Cofounder (Emmaus, PA: Rodale, 2006).
6 Ibid.
7 William Burnett and David John Evans, Designing Your Life: How to Build a Well-Lived, Joyful Life (New York: Knopf, 2016).
8 Carsten Wrosch et al., “Giving Up on Unattainable Goals: Benefits for Health?,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 33, no. 2 (2007): 251–65.
9 關於英特爾決定要退出他們原有的主力記憶體晶片的市場，參見Andrew Grove, Only the Paranoid Survive (New York: Doubleday, 1996)。
10 Laura Sydell, “Digital Pioneer Andrew Grove Led Intel’s Shift From Chips to Microprocessors,” NPR, March 22, 2016, https://n.pr/2MvQCAm.
11 Hal R. Arkes and Catherine Blumer, “The Psychology of Sunk Cost,” in Judgment and Decision Making: An Interdisciplinary Reader, ed. Terry Connolly, Hal R. Arkes, and Kenneth R. Hammond, 2nd ed. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
12 Daniel Friedman et al., “Searching for the Sunk Cost Fallacy,” Experimental Economics 10, no. 1 (2007): 79–104.
13 John W. Payne, James R. Bettman, and Mary Frances Luce, “When Time Is Money: Decision Behavior Under Opportunity-Cost Time Pressure,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 66, no. 2 (1996): 131–52; Robert Kurzban et al., “An Opportunity Cost Model of Subjective Effort and Task Performance,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 36, no. 6 (2013): 661–79.
14 很有意思，對大器晚成的人也是好消息的是，年紀稍長的人比年輕人可能更不容易陷入沉沒成本的謬誤。參見JoNell Strough et al., “Are Older Adults Less Subject to the Sunk-Cost Fallacy Than Younger Adults?,” Psychological Science 19, no. 7 (2008): 650–52。
15 Hal R. Arkes and Peter Ayton, “The Sunk Cost and Concorde Effects: Are Humans Less Rational Than Lower Animals?,” Psychological Bulletin 125, no. 5 (1999): 591.
16 Dan Ariely in Stephen J. Dubner, “The Upside of Quitting,” Freakonomics (podcast), http://bit.ly/2x8fxoY. 亦參見Dan Ariely, Predictably Irrational (New York: HarperCollins, 2008)。
17 Seth Godin, The Dip: A Little Book That Teaches You When to Quit (and When to Stick) (New York: Penguin, 2007).
18 Steven Levitt in Stephen J. Dubner, “The Upside of Quitting,” Freakonomics (podcast), http://bit.ly/2x8fxoY.
19 Levitt in ibid.
20 Arkes in ibid.
第七章 自我懷疑是你的超能力
1 Ellen Hendriksen, “Why Everyone Is Insecure (and Why That’s Okay),” Scientific American, April 12, 2018, http://bit.ly/2D3sdmv.
2 Anthony D. Hermann, Geoffrey J. Leonardelli, and Robert M. Arkin, “Self-Doubt and Self-Esteem: A Threat from Within,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28, no. 3 (2002): 395–408.
3 Matthew D. Braslow et al., “Self-Doubt,” Social and Personality Psychology Compass 6, no. 6 (2012): 470–82. 亦參見Sean M. McCrea, Edward R. Hirt, and Bridgett J. Milner, “She Works Hard for the Money: Valuing Effort Underlies Gender Differences in Behavioral Self-Handicapping,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44, no. 2 (2008): 292–311; Leah R. Spalding and Curtis D. Hardin, “Unconscious Unease and Self-Handicapping: Behavioral Consequences of Individual Differences in Implicit and Explicit Self-Esteem,” Psychological Science 10, no. 6 (1999): 535–39。
4 Ibid. 亦參見James A. Shepperd and Robert M. Arkin, “Behavioral Other-Enhancement: Strategically Obscuring the Link Between Performance and Evaluation,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60, no. 1 (1991): 79。
5 Ibid. 亦參見Ryan P. Brown and Robert A. Josephs, “A Burden of Proof: Stereotype Relevance and Gender Differences in Math Performance,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76, no. 2 (1999): 246。
6 在面對自我懷疑時，許多人也會採取「達成超過預期的成就」或是「冒名頂替現象」等因應方式，但是此處所提出的三個因應方式，也就是自我妨礙、強化他人以及刻板印象威脅，看起來是大器晚成的人最常使用的；「達成超過預期的成就」比較像是年少得志的人會採取的方法。
7 Joseph C. Hermanowicz, “Scientists and Self-Doubt Across Strata of Academic Science,” Research in Higher Education 46, no. 3 (2005): 309–26.
8 Ibid.
9 歐普拉．溫芙蕾與梅莉．史翠普的訪談，“Oprah Talks to Meryl Streep, Nicole Kidman and Julianne Moore,” O: The Oprah Magazine, January 2003.
10 瑪雅．安傑洛的話引自Carl Richards, “Learning to Deal with the Impostor Syndrome,” New York Times, October 26, 2015。
11 Tim Woodman et al., “Self-Confidence and Performance: A Little Self-Doubt Helps,” Psychology of Sport and Exercise 11, no. 6 (2010): 467–70; Deborah L. Feltz and Jared M. Wood, “Can Self-Doubt Be Beneficial to Performance? Exploring the Concept of Preparatory Efficacy,” Open Sports Sciences Journal 2 (2009): 65–70; Alison Ede, Philip J. Sullivan, and Deborah L. Feltz, “Self-Doubt: Uncertainty as a Motivating Factor on Effort in an Exercise Endurance Task,” Psychology of Sport and Exercise 28 (2017): 31–36.
12 Steven J. Haggbloom et al., “The 100 Most Eminent Psychologists of the 20th Century,” Review of General Psychology 6, no. 2 (2002): 139. See also “Eminent Psychologists of the 20th Century,” Monitor on Psychology 33, no. 7 (2002): 29.
13 M. G. Lindzey and W. M. Runyan, eds., A History of Psychology in Autobiography, vol. 9 (American Psychological Association, 2007).
14 Ibid.
15 Ibid.
16 Albert Bandura, “Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change,” Psychological Review 84, no. 2 (1977): 191.
17 Albert Bandura, “Perceived Self-Efficacy in Cognitive Development and Functioning,” Educational Psychologist 28, no. 2 (1993): 117–48; Albert Bandura, “Self-Efficacy Mechanism in Human Agency,” American Psychologist 37, no. 2 (1982): 122; Barry J. Zimmerman, “Self-Efficacy: An Essential Motive to Learn,” Contemporary Educational Psychology 25, no. 1 (2000): 82–91; Alexander D. Stajkovic and Fred Luthans, “Social Cognitive Theory and Self-Efficacy: Implications for Motivation Theory and Practice,” Motivation and Work Behavior 126 (2003): 140; Dale H. Schunk, “Self-Efficacy and Academic Motivation,” Educational Psychologist 26, nos. 3–4 (1991): 207–31; Marilyn E. Gist and Terence R. Mitchell, “Self-Efficacy: A Theoretical Analysis of Its Determinants and Malleability,” Academy of Management Review 17, no. 2 (1992): 183–211; Frank Pajares, “Self-Efficacy Beliefs in Academic Settings,” Review of Educational Research 66, no. 4 (1996): 543–78; Icek Ajzen, “Perceived Behavioral Control, Self-Efficacy, Locus of Control, and the Theory of Planned Behavior,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 32, no. 4 (2002): 665–83; Karen D. Multon, Steven D. Brown, and Robert W. Lent, “Relation of Self-Efficacy Beliefs to Academic Outcomes: A Meta-Analytic Investigation,” Journal of Counseling Psychology 38, no. 1 (1991): 30; Barry J. Zimmerman, Albert Bandura, and Manuel Martinez-Pons, “Self-Motivation for Academic Attainment: The Role of Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Personal Goal Setting,” American Educational Research Journal 29, no. 3 (1992): 663–76; Alexander D. Stajkovic and Fred Luthans, “Self-Efficacy and Work-Related Performance: A Meta-Analysis,” Psychological Bulletin 124, no. 2 (1998): 240; Ralf Schwarzer, ed., Self-Efficacy: Thought Control of Action (New York: Routledge, 2014); Maureen R. Weiss, Diane M. Wiese, and Kimberley A. Klint, “Head over Heels with Success: The Relationship Between Self-Efficacy and Performance in Competitive Youth Gymnastics,” Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 11, no. 4 (1989): 444–51.
18 V. S. Ramachandran, Encyclopedia of Human Behavior (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1994), 4:71–81.
19 James Hardy, “Speaking Clearly: A Critical Review of the Self-Talk Literature,” Psychology of Sport and Exercise 7, no. 1 (2006): 81–97.
20 Antonis Hatzigeorgiadis et al., “Investigating the Functions of Self-Talk: The Effects of Motivational Self-Talk on Self-Efficacy and Performance in Young Tennis Players,” Sport Psychologist 22, no. 4 (2008): 458–71; Antonis Hatzigeorgiadis, Yannis Theodorakis, and Nikos Zourbanos, “Self-Talk in the Swimming Pool: The Effects of Self-Talk on Thought Content and Performance on Water-Polo Tasks,” Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 16, no. 2 (2004): 138–50.
21 Shahzad Tahmasebi Boroujeni and Mehdi Shahbazi, “The Effect of Instructional and Motivational Self-Talk on Performance of Basketball’s Motor Skill,” Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences 15 (2011): 3113–17; Judy L. Van Raalte et al., “Cork! The Effects of Positive and Negative Self-Talk on Dart Throwing Performance,” Journal of Sport Behavior 18, no. 1 (1995): 50; Jennifer Cumming et al., “Examining the Direction of Imagery and Self-Talk on Dart-Throwing Performance and Self-Efficacy,” Sport Psychologist 20, no. 3 (2006): 257–74; Antonis Hatzigeorgiadis et al., “Self-Talk and Sports Performance: A Meta-Analysis,” Perspectives on Psychological Science 6, no. 4 (2011): 348–56; Judy L. Van Raalte et al., “The Relationship Between Observable Self-Talk and Competitive Junior Tennis Players’ Match Performances,” Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 16, no. 4 (1994): 400–15; Christopher P. Neck et al., “ ‘I Think I Can; I Think I Can’: A Self-Leadership Perspective Toward Enhancing Entrepreneur Thought Patterns, Self-Efficacy, and Performance,” Journal of Managerial Psychology 14, no. 6 (1999): 477–501; Antonis Hatzigeorgiadis et al., “Investigating the Functions of Self-Talk: The Effects of Motivational Self-Talk on Self-Efficacy and Performance in Young Tennis Players,” Sport Psychologist 22, no. 4 (2008): 458–71; Eleni Zetou et al., “The Effect of Self-Talk in Learning the Volleyball Service Skill and Self-Efficacy Improvement,” Journal of Sport and Human Exercise 7, no. 4 (2012): 794-805; Chris P. Neck and Charles C. Manz, “Thought Self-Leadership: The Influence of Self-Talk and Mental Imagery on Performance,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 13, no. 7 (1992): 681–99; Robert Weinberg, Robert Grove, and Allen Jackson, “Strategies for Building Self-Efficacy in Tennis Players: A Comparative Analysis of Australian and American Coaches,” Sport Psychologist 6, no. 1 (1992): 3–13; Daniel Gould et al., “An Exploratory Examination of Strategies Used by Elite Coaches to Enhance Self-Efficacy in Athletes,” Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 11, no. 2 (1989): 128–40.
22 Elizabeth Bernstein, “ ‘Self Talk’: When Talking to Yourself, the Way You Do It Makes a Difference,” Wall Street Journal, May 5, 2014; Kristin Wong, “The Benefits of Talking to Yourself,” New York Times, June 8, 2017. 亦參見Ethan Kross et al., “Self-Talk as a Regulatory Mechanism: How You Do It Matters,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 106, no. 2 (2014): 304。
23 Bernstein, “ ‘Self Talk.’ ”
24 Ramachandran, Encyclopedia of Human Behavior.
25 Bandura, “Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change”; Bandura, “Self-Efficacy Mechanism in Human Agency.”
26 Amy C. Edmondson, “Framing for Learning: Lessons in Successful Technology Implementation,” California Management Review 45, no. 2 (2003): 34–54. 亦參見Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, “The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice,” Science 211, no. 4481 (1981): 453–58。
27 Robert M. Entman, “Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm,” Journal of Communication 43, no. 4 (1993): 51–58; Robert D. Benford and David A. Snow, “Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Overview and Assessment,” Annual Review of Sociology 26, no. 1 (2000): 611–39; George Lakoff, “Simple Framing,” Rockridge Institute 14 (2006).
28 Alison Wood Brooks, “Get Excited: Reappraising Pre-Performance Anxiety as Excitement,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 143, no. 3 (2014): 1144.
29 Maxie C. Maultsby, Jr., Rational Behavior Therapy (Appleton, WI: Rational, 1990).
30 Carol S. Dweck and Ellen L. Leggett, “A Social-Cognitive Approach to Motivation and Personality,” Psychological Review 95, no. 2 (1988): 256.
31 Amy C. Edmondson, Teaming: How Organizations Learn, Innovate, and Compete in the Knowledge Economy (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2012); Amy C. Edmondson, Richard M. Bohmer, and Gary P. Pisano, “Disrupted Routines: Team Learning and New Technology Implementation in Hospitals,” Administrative Science Quarterly 46, no. 4 (2001): 685–716; Chris Argyris and Donald A. Schön, “Organizational Learning: A Theory of Action Perspective,” Reis, nos. 77–78 (1997): 345–48.
32 Laura K. Barnard and John F. Curry, “Self-Compassion: Conceptualizations, Correlates, and Interventions,” Review of General Psychology 15, no. 4 (2011): 289.
33 Mark R. Leary et al., “Self-Compassion and Reactions to Unpleasant Self-Relevant Events: The Implications of Treating Oneself Kindly,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92, no. 5 (2007): 887.
34 Laura K. Barnard and John F. Curry, “Self-Compassion: Conceptualizations, Correlates, and Interventions,” Review of General Psychology 15, no. 4 (2011): 289.
35 Kristin D. Neff, Stephanie S. Rude, and Kristin L. Kirkpatrick, “An Examination of Self-Compassion in Relation to Positive Psychological Functioning and Personality Traits,” Journal of Research in Personality 41, no. 4 (2007): 908–16; Filip Raes, “The Effect of Self-Compassion on the Development of Depression Symptoms in a Non-Clinical Sample,” Mindfulness 2, no. 1 (2011): 33–36.
36 Juliana G. Breines and Serena Chen, “Self-Compassion Increases Self-Improvement Motivation,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 38, no. 9 (2012): 1133–43; Jeannetta G. Williams, Shannon K. Stark, and Erica E. Foster, “Start Today or the Very Last Day? The Relationships Among Self-Compassion, Motivation, and Procrastination,” American Journal of Psychological Research 4, no. 1 (2008).
37 Kristin Neff, “The Space Between Self-Esteem and Self-Compassion: Kristin Neff at TEDx CentennialParkWomen,” YouTube, February 6, 2013, http://bit.ly/2xyNLRV.
38 Kristin Wong, “Why Self-Compassion Beats Self-Confidence,” New York Times, December 28, 2017.
39 Robert I. Sutton, “Why Good Bosses Tune In to Their People,” McKinsey Quarterly, August 2010, https://mck.co/2MONArc; Antonio Feser, Nicolai Nielsen, and Michael Rennie, “What’s Missing in Leadership Development?,” McKinsey Quarterly, August 2017, https://mck.co/2PPw08f; Bernadette Dillon and Juliet Bourke, “The Six Signature Traits of Inclusive Leadership: Thriving in a Diverse New World,” DeLoitte Insights, April 14, 2016, http://bit.ly/2OC9a3Y.
第八章 成長緩慢？讓自己轉換到更好的環境吧！
1 Carliss D. Miller, “A Phenomenological Analysis of the Crabs in the Barrel Syndrome,” Academy of Management Proceedings 2015, no. 1 (2015); Carliss D. Miller, “The Crabs in a Barrel Syndrome: Structural Influence on Competitive Behavior,” Academy of Management Proceedings 2014, no. 1. (2014).
2 湯姆．沃爾夫的話引自David A. Price, “Where Tom Wolfe Got His Status Obsession,” Nieman Storyboard, July 5, 2016, http://bit.ly/2xbQdh6。
3 Todd Rose, The End of Average: How We Succeed in a World That Values Sameness (New York: HarperCollins, 2015).
4 Richard Fry, “Americans Are Moving at Historically Low Rates, in Part Because Millennials Are Staying Put,” Pew Research Center, February 13, 2017, https://pewrsr.ch/2DdAXX2.
5 ２０１８年我與金柏莉．哈靈頓的訪談。
6 Daniel M. Cable and Timothy A. Judge, “Person-Organization Fit, Job Choice Decisions, and Organizational Entry,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 67, no. 3 (1996): 294–311.
7 Susan Cain, Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World That Can’t Stop Talking (New York: Broadway Books, 2013).
8 Jerome Kagan, Galen’s Prophecy: Temperament in Human Nature (New York: Basic Books, 1998).
9 David Dobbs, “The Science of Success,” Atlantic, December 2009, http://bit.ly/2pc8tmS. 關於傑．貝爾斯基的研究，參見Jay Belsky et al., “Vulnerability Genes or Plasticity Genes?,” Molecular Psychiatry 14, no. 8 (2009): 746; Michael Pluess and Jay Belsky, “Differential Susceptibility to Rearing Experience: The Case of Childcare,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 50, no. 4 (2009): 396–404; Michael Pluess and Jay Belsky, “Differential Susceptibility to Parenting and Quality Child Care,” Developmental Psychology 46, no. 2 (2010): 379; and Jay Belsky and Michael Pluess, “Beyond Diathesis Stress: Differential Susceptibility to Environmental Influences,” Psychological Bulletin 135, no. 6 (2009): 885。
10 哈代在２０００年代初期是富比士媒體集團舊金山分社社長。
11 ２００４年我與華理克牧師的訪談。
12 Hal E. Hershfield et al., “Increasing Saving Behavior Through Age-Progressed Renderings of the Future Self,” Journal of Marketing Research 48 (2011): S23–S37; Hal Ersner Hershfield et al., “Don’t Stop Thinking About Tomorrow: Individual Differences in Future Self-Continuity Account for Saving,” Judgment and Decision Making 4, no. 4 (2009): 280; Hal Ersner Hershfield, G. Elliott Wimmer, and Brian Knutson, “Saving for the Future Self: Neural Measures of Future Self-Continuity Predict Temporal Discounting,” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 4, no. 1 (2008): 85–92; Hal E. Hershfield, “Future Self-Continuity: How Conceptions of the Future Self Transform Intertemporal Choice,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1235, no. 1 (2011): 30–43; Hal E. Hershfield, Taya R. Cohen, and Leigh Thompson, “Short Horizons and Tempting Situations: Lack of Continuity to Our Future Selves Leads to Unethical Decision Making and Behavior,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 117, no. 2 (2012): 298–310; Jean-Louis Van Gelder et al., “Friends with My Future Self: Longitudinal Vividness Intervention Reduces Delinquency,” Criminology 53, no. 2 (2015): 158–79.
13 Peter M. Gollwitzer, “When Intentions Go Public: Does Social Reality Widen the Intention-Behavior Gap?,” Psychological Science 20, no. 5 (2009): 612–18.
14 “Frederick W. Smith,” FedEx, n.d., http://bit.ly/2QsDfUH.
15 布蘭森對於失敗並且被遺棄的維珍相關企業，表現得非常坦率。參見：Jack Preston, “Six Memorable Virgin Fails,” Virgin, January 18, 2016, http://bit.ly/2MsUH8H。
16 D. Connor, “Diane Greene, the Humble Executive,” Network World, December 26, 2005, http://bit.ly/2CSlMlX.
17 Denise Lee Yohn, “Company Culture Doesn’t Need to Be ‘Warm and Fuzzy’ to Be Effective,” Quartz@Work, March 13, 2018, http://bit.ly/2MsDJHs.
18 就算沒有破百，也有數十個從不同觀點來看目標承諾的研究──從個人到團隊、再到對成就和財務的影響等。此處僅列出一部分研究：Edwin A. Locke, Gary P. Latham, and Miriam Erez, “The Determinants of Goal Commitment,” Academy of Management Review 13, no. 1 (1988): 23–39; John R. Hollenbeck and Howard J. Klein, “Goal Commitment and the Goal-Setting Process: Problems, Prospects, and Proposals for Future Research,” Journal of Applied Psychology 72, no. 2 (1987): 212; Howard J. Klein et al., “Goal Commitment and the Goal-Setting Process: Conceptual Clarification and Empirical Synthesis,” Journal of Applied Psychology 84, no. 6 (1999): 885; John R. Hollenbeck et al., “Investigation of the Construct Validity of a Self-Report Measure of Goal Commitment,” Journal of Applied Psychology 74, no. 6 (1989): 951; Howard J. Klein and Jay S. Kim, “A Field Study of the Influence of Situational Constraints, Leader-Member Exchange, and Goal Commitment on Performance,” Academy of Management Journal 41, no. 1 (1998): 88–95; Vincent K. Chong and Kar Ming Chong, “Budget Goal Commitment and Informational Effects of Budget Participation on Performance: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach,” Behavioral Research in Accounting 14, no. 1 (2002): 65–86; Jerry C. Wofford, Vicki L. Goodwin, and Steven Premack, “Meta-Analysis of the Antecedents of Personal Goal Level and of the Antecedents and Consequences of Goal Commitment,” Journal of Management 18, no. 3 (1992): 595–615; Howard J. Klein and Paul W. Mulvey, “Two Investigations of the Relationships Among Group Goals, Goal Commitment, Cohesion, and Performance,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 61, no. 1 (1995): 44–53; Caroline Aubé and Vincent Rousseau, “Team Goal Commitment and Team Effectiveness: The Role of Task Interdependence and Supportive Behaviors,” Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice 9, no. 3 (2005): 189; and Gabriele Oettingen et al., “Mental Contrasting and Goal Commitment: The Mediating Role of Energization,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 35, no. 5 (2009): 608–22。
19 Rebecca Webber, “Reinvent Yourself,” Psychology Today, May 2014.
20 Ravenna Helson, “A Longitudinal Study of Creative Personality in Women,” Creativity Research Journal 12, no. 2 (1999): 89–101.
第九章 大器晚成者：成功沒有期限
1 “How to Invest Like ... Geraldine Weiss, the Queen of Blue Chip Dividends,” Telegraph, September 18, 2017.
2 Jonathan Gottschall, The Storytelling Animal: How Stories Make Us Human (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2012); Jonathan Gottschall, “Why Fiction Is Good for You,” Boston Globe, April 29, 2012.
3 Theodore R. Sarbin, “The Narrative as Root Metaphor for Psychology,” in T. R. Sarbin, ed., Narrative Psychology: The Storied Nature of Human Conduct (New York: Praeger, 1986); Theodore R. Sarbin,“The Narrative Quality of Action,” Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology 10, no. 2 (1990): 49–65; Theodore R. Sarbin, “The Poetics of Identity,” Theory and Psychology 7, no. 1 (1997): 67–82; Joseph De Rivera and Theodore R. Sarbin, eds., Believed In Imaginings: The Narrative Construction of Reality (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1998); Theodore R. Sarbin, “Embodiment and the Narrative Structure of Emotional Life,” Narrative Inquiry 11, no. 1 (2001): 217–25.
4 Jerome S. Bruner, Acts of Meaning (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); Jerome S. Bruner, Actual Minds, Possible Worlds (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009).
5 Dan P. McAdams, Power, Intimacy, and the Life Story: Personological Inquiries into Identity (New York: Guilford Press, 1988); Dan P. McAdams and E. D. de St. Aubin, “A Theory of Generativity and Its Assessment Through Self-Report, Behavioral Acts, and Narrative Themes in Autobiography,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 62, no. 6 (1992): 1003; Dan P. McAdams, The Stories We Live By: Personal Myths and the Making of the Self (New York: Guilford Press, 1993); Dan P. McAdams, “Personality, Modernity, and the Storied Self: A Contemporary Framework for Studying Persons,” Psychological Inquiry 7, no. 4 (1996): 295–321; Dan P. McAdams, “The Psychology of Life Stories,” Review of General Psychology 5, no. 2 (2001): 100; Dan P. McAdams, “Personal Narratives and the Life Story,” in Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research, ed. Oliver P. John, Richard W. Robins, and Lawrence A. Pervin, 3rd ed. (New York: Guilford Press, 2008): 242–62; Dan P. McAdams, “The Psychological Self as Actor, Agent, and Author,” Perspectives on Psychological Science 8, no. 3 (2013): 272–95.
6 Sigmund Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams: The Complete and Definitive Text, trans. and ed. James Strachey (New York: Basic Books, 2010); Sigmund Freud, The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, trans. and ed. James Strachey (London: Hogarth Press, 1953). 亦參見Donald P. Spence, “Narrative Truth and Theoretical Truth,” Psychoanalytic Quarterly 51, no. 1 (1982): 43–69。
7 Michael Murray, “Narrative Psychology and Narrative Analysis,” in Qualitative Research in Psychology: Expanding Perspectives in Methodology and Design, ed. Paul M. Camic, Jean E. Rhodes, and Lucy Yardley (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2003).
8 Paul Ricoeur, “Life in Quest of Narrative,” in On Paul Ricoeur: Narrative and Interpretation (London: Routledge, 1991). 亦參見Michele L. Crossley, Introducing Narrative Psychology: Self, Trauma, and the Construction of Meaning (Philadelphia: Open University Press, 2000); and Michele L. Crossley, “Narrative Psychology, Trauma and the Study of Self/Identity,” Theory and Psychology 10, no. 4 (2000): 527–46。
9 James W. Pennebaker and Janel D. Seagal, “Forming a Story: The Health Benefits of Narrative,” Journal of Clinical Psychology 55, no. 10 (1999): 1243–54.
10 Keith Oatley, Such Stuff as Dreams: The Psychology of Fiction (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2011); Raymond A. Mar and Keith Oatley, “The Function of Fiction Is the Abstraction and Simulation of Social Experience,” Perspectives on Psychological Science 3, no. 3 (2008): 173–92; Keith Oatley, “A Taxonomy of the Emotions of Literary Response and a Theory of Identification in Fictional Narrative,” Poetics 23, no. 1 (1994): 53–74; Keith Oatley, “Why Fiction May Be Twice as True as Fact: Fiction as Cognitive and Emotional Simulation,” Review of General Psychology 3, no. 2 (1999): 101; Raymond A. Mar, “The Neuropsychology of Narrative: Story Comprehension, Story Production and Their Interrelation,” Neuropsychologia 42, no. 10 (2004): 1414–34; Raymond A. Mar, “The Neural Bases of Social Cognition and Story Comprehension,” Annual Review of Psychology 62 (2011): 103–34.
11 Howard Suber, The Power of Film (Michael Wiese Productions, 2006).
12 Angela L. Duckworth, Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance (New York: Scribner’s, 2016); Angela L. Duckworth et al., “Grit: Perseverance and Passion for Long-Term Goals,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92, no. 6 (2007): 1087.
13 Ibid.
14 Ibid.
15 Ibid.
16 D. Connor, “Diane Greene, the Humble Executive,” Network World, December 26, 2005, http://bit.ly/2NIAqk6.
17 Susan Cain, Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World That Can’t Stop Talking (New York: Broadway Books, 2013).
18 ２０１８年我與金柏莉．哈靈頓的訪談。
結 語 說出你自己的故事
1 Rob Price, “The Median Salary at Facebook Is More than $240,000 per Year,” Business Insider, April 17, 2018.
2 這是基於在Google的基本年薪為12萬美元，加上３萬美元的紅利，以及４年股票選擇權中的第一年，估算而成的數字。